tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-10896863219599265132024-03-05T18:44:03.702-07:00How It Looks From HereTeaching Moments and Public Discourse.Richhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10618557523844826402noreply@blogger.comBlogger87125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1089686321959926513.post-27863081190879242682015-02-22T11:49:00.000-07:002015-02-26T20:31:06.086-07:00Thoughts on Israel, Iran, Daesh, Antisemitism, Islamophobia, and Racism(Opinion)To those who pay attention to current events, it should be obvious that there is a widening rift between the United States and Israel. The rhetoric between the Israel Administration and the US Administration has grown to a fevered pitch as the prospect of a nuclear deal with Iran in March 2015 becomes more possible. Behind all of the rhetoric lies a legitimate policy difference.<br />
<br />
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<a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Satellite_image_of_Israel_in_January_2003.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Satellite_image_of_Israel_in_January_2003.jpg" height="320" width="134" /></a></div>
<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>Israel</b><br />
<br />
Israel rightly perceives Iran and its proxies (Hezbollah, Hamas) to be an existential threat. Certainly the thought of Iran developing a nuclear warfare capability is frightening to Israel and its partisans. Such a capability could blunt Israel's strategic military advantage. It is not hard to imagine a skirmish with Hezbollah leading to nuclear blackmail or worse. If I were an Israeli citizen, I would be worried about such eventualities. I am, however, a US Citizen and my only national loyalty is to the United States.<script type="text/javascript">
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<b>The United States</b><br />
<br />
The interests of the United States are often in concert with those of Israel; so it is no coincidence that the two countries cooperate in a very dangerous neighborhood. It is possible, however, for those interests to diverge and at this point in time (2015), I believe that they are divergent. The United States and its allies face a global threat from a loosely affiliated and sometimes competing array of Sunni groups that are either influenced by or closely in agreement with <a href="http://www.jamestown.org/programs/tm/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=528&#.VOoVnfnnQ4I">Wahhabism and or Salafism</a>. These groups include Al Qaida, Daesh (ISIS), Al Shabab, and Boko Haram. Obviously, these groups also pose a threat to Israeli interests. All of these groups are blatantly Antisemitic. It is equally obvious that Iran and its proxies are a potential threat to US Interests (Consider the <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/22/AR2006122200455.html">Khobar Towers</a> incident, for example). I do not mean to make absolutist claims one way or the other.<br />
<br />
In the current climate, however, detente between the US and Iran may be possible. Assuming that my enemy's enemy is my friend is a strategy that can backfire too often, but strategic non-aggression for the short term is very likely to be in US interests in fighting Daesh in Syria and Iraq. The nuclear negotiations between Iran and world powers must be seen in that light. While such non-aggression is in the short-term interests of the United States, it is not at all in the interest of Israel. To the United States, Iran and its proxies are a regional threat. Israel happens to be in the region, and to Israel, Iran and its proxies are an existential threat. I suggest that this is a rational policy difference between the two countries, one that can and should be responsibly debated, but unfortunately that debate has taken a darker turn.<br />
<br />
<a name='more'></a><b>Islamism</b><br />
<br />
The debate has taken the form of criticism of the President's choice of words when describing the threat that the US and the world are currently confronting. Israel and its partisans want to name the threat "Islamism." This terminology has the advantage of blurring the distinction between the threat posed by Daesh and that posed by Iranian proxies. By calling them all Islamist, one does not distinguish between the threats and therefore precludes the possibility of detente with one side to fight the other.<br />
<br />
The US Administration for its part argues that one must be very careful of the perception that the West is in a war with Islam. Although Islamism is not the same as Islam, that distinction is easily lost. The President insists that the enemy are violent extremists that pervert the true meaning of Islam. The formulation is philosophically problematic because it implies that there is a correct interpretation of Islam, rather than recognizing that all religions are human institutions that mean nothing less and nothing more than their adherents say they mean. Yet, it must be acknowledged that not all 1.5 billion Muslims are violent terrorists.<br />
<br />
Those who like to fan the flames of hatred and divisiveness, often make arguments that say yes, only a minority of Muslims engage in terrorist acts, but that mainstream Muslim groups never condemn such actions. "We never hear them protest terrorism," such people claim. This claim is demonstrably false. I suspect those who make it filter their news to fit what they want to hear. They could prove themselves wrong by the simple act of <a href="http://bit.ly/1LriUoi">Googling for such a response</a>.<br />
<br />
The debate over terminology would almost seem silly when one reflects on the direct military action the current administration is taking against these extremist groups, whatever one chooses to call them. (I should say that I do differ from the current Administration in that I think the current threat from Daesh warrants an even more aggressive US response to include ground troops, if necessary, but that is another issue).<br />
<br />
As the President adamantly defends the right of 1.5 billion to maintain their religious beliefs, his detractors increasingly embrace the rhetoric of Islamaphobes (I am consciously using this controversial word, I hope to explain my views on it in another blog post.) and the fringe in American politics.<br />
<br />
<b>Fringe Politics in the USA</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Unfortunately, such partisans of Israel have sought out and received support from some of the extremist fringes of the American right. Ever since the possibility of an Obama Presidency emerged, there have been claims he was not born in the United States (He was born in Hawaii), that he is secretly a Muslim (The President is a Christian), that he did not have a "typical" American upbringing, that he "looks different" from previous Presidents. In other words, the President is Black, but they cannot say that is the issue they have.<br />
<br />
Fringe elements in American society take every act that the President does, scrutinize it, and claim it is un-American, regardless of whether Reagan, Bush 41, Clinton, or Bush 43 did the exact same thing.<br />
<br />
Consider President Bush's <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/08/bush-on-islam.html">remarks on Islam</a>. Do they make President Bush un-American? Do they mean that President Bush does not love his country the way that you and I do?<br />
<br />
One wonders about those who falsely accuse Muslims of not speaking out against terrorism, and yet themselves embrace or at least do not speak out against the rhetoric of racism (Yes, I said it.).<br />
<br />
This temporary alliance between partisans of Israel and racists in the United States, is not good for either country. Rather, we should be having a rational policy debate about the relative risks of Iran and Daesh. I fear it is too late for that, and I fear for the future of a populace that will not clearly denounce Antisemitism, racism, Islamaphobia, hatred, and terrorism and live up to its ideals. Terrorism, hatred, and murderous ideology are very real threats, let us stand united, not divided, in confronting them.<br />
<br />
<b>Sources</b><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li><b><a href="http://www.jamestown.org/programs/tm/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=528&#.VOoVnfnnQ4I">Understanding the Origins of Wahhabism and Salafism</a></b></li>
<li><a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/22/AR2006122200455.html">Iran Held Liable In Khobar Attack</a></li>
</ul>
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<i><br /></i>
There is no question that the Department of Defense is a huge part of the National Budget. I think that it is possible to make significant cuts in that budget without impairing our national capabilities. There are many issues in the Defense budget to include Healthcare, size of the force, entitlements, compensation etc. that are important, but I am not going to discuss those issues. Rather, my interest is in how the Department of Defense buys stuff.<br />
<br />
A lot has been written about <a href="http://www.carlisle.army.mil/orgs/SSL/dclm/pubs/The%20More%20Things%20Change%20Acq%20Reform%20Remains%20the%20Same%20%28Eide,%20Allen,%20DARJ%2061%29.pdf">Acquisition Reform</a>, and I am not going to write much about that topic except to say that every few years there is another reform effort that never seems to reach the vision of those who initiate it. A lot of very smart people work on this issue and fail, and I am not convinced that I am any smarter or more earnest than they are. Rather, I intend to propose fixing the system from the bottom up with a few radical policy changes that would greatly empower end users to get the goods that they need at effective prices.<br />
<br />
<a name='more'></a><h3>
Let End Users Get the Best Value for The Dollar</h3>
<br />
Eliminate the <a href="http://www.acquisition.gov/far/">Federal Acquisition Regulation(FAR) </a>and the <a href="https://interact.gsa.gov/blog/competition-contracting-act-cica">Competition in Contracting Act (CICA)</a>, or at least set a very high dollar threshold before they apply. Allow end-users to but good and services that they believe will meet their organization's needs. The end-users know better than contracting bureaucrats what it is they need, and they are capable of judging best value versus lowest price better than contracting bureaucrats.<br />
<div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
This idea is radical. It requires the DoD to trust its employees to act in the best interests of the American People. The truth is that it will result in some corruption. People will funnel money to the businesses of their friends and family. People might take bribes. The solution to such problems is not to spend a dollar to ensure that we do not waste a penny. In cases of corruption and violation of ethics, it should still be possible to prosecute the bad actors. Yes, the system is not perfect and there will be some who get away with it. So be it, we will still save money overall.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
An additional issue is that the American People have decided to use federal contracting law to advance social objectives. Giving preference to <a href="https://www.sba.gov/content/about-8a-business-development-program">8 (a) contractor</a>s advances the social goal of having an economy that is more diverse and offers some correction to the historically disadvantaged. I do not dispute these social goals, but perhaps they could be accomplished better through the tax code or even through direct subsidies. Currently, too many 8 (a) contractors are just fronts that subcontract to major defense contractors, with a pass-through fee. I do not doubt that many 8 (a) contractors are conscientious and effective businesses, but putting more hoops in the way of end-users trying to do their best to do their jobs is not the answer.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
I should say that I am not proposing trashing the <a href="https://acc.dau.mil/CommunityBrowser.aspx?id=18532">DoD 5000 series.</a> Major Acquisition Programs need to be properly engineered to get the American people the best value for their dollars, but the threshold for that type of acquisition is much higher than what I am discussing. In fact it gets back to Acquisition Reform.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<h3>
<b>Eliminate the Expiration of Funds</b></h3>
<div>
<b><br /></b></div>
<div>
Currently, appropriations to Government agencies expire, i.e., they need to be spent by a certain date or they disappear. It may sound like a good idea; afterall, if you cannot figure out how to spend your money, maybe you did not need it in the first place. The problem is that expiration of funds forces management of projects to follow the timeframe of the funding cycle. </div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
When dollars are about to expire, there is a rush to spend them, however unwisely. Oftentimes, when executing a project, there are "come-to-find-outs," that is there are unexpected circumstances that make the project more complicated than it originally seemed on someone's Microsoft Project plan. </div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
If a project takes more time to execute than originally expected, why not allow the project to use the money already allocated to spend in the smartest way rather than the quickest way.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Congress may not like this proposal because it may seem to curtail their power of the purse. I think they could rectify this issue by reducing the next year's budget by an amount that is correlated with the amount of money an agency is carrying over. Such an approach would stop agencies from simply banking funds, but would still given them the flexibility to spend it smartly.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<h3>
Allow More Fexibility with the Color of Money</h3>
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-weight: normal;">Currently, appropriations are made into different types of funding, colloquially referred to as the <a href="http://acqnotes.com/acqnote/acquisitions/appropriation-categories">color of money</a>. The different types of money have different expiration time frames and cannot be converted from one to the other under normal circumstances.</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div>
<span style="font-weight: normal;">What if you run out of Research, Development, test and Evaluation (RDTE) money, but you still need to do more research or testing before you move to procurement? You can either spend your Procurement money prematurely, or wait until the next appropriation for more RDTE dollars, while the clock is ticking on your procurement funds.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-weight: normal;">A better solution would be do put reprogramming authority at the lowest possible level so that some procurement dollars could be spent on RDTE. Yes, I am verging into Acquisition Reform, but this change would not completely rewrite the 5000 series.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span></div>
<h3>
Acquisition Reform</h3>
<div>
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-weight: normal;">Finally, the fact that nobody seems to be able to succeed at Acquisition Reform does not mean we should abandon all hope. The essence of reform in my opinion would be to spend more money upfront in RDTE to avoid huge expenditures down the line in operations and maintenance. It is easy to say, but it is a tough nut to crack. We ought to get our best and brightest to focus on this issue in a non-partisan way in the best interests of the American People. In this case, good ideas are not enough. Cracking this nut would require critical thinking and decision making that is evidence-based, not ideology-based, or good idea-based.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span></div>
<h3>
A Pipe Dream</h3>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
I am not naive. I doubt that anything approaching these ideas will happen in my lifetime. Our national conversation is too polarized, partisan, and ignorant of ground-truth to allow a grown-up discussion of how to cut the Defense Budget. Still, I have an opinion, and I have expressed it.</div>
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Q. E. D.<div class="blogger-post-footer"><script type="text/javascript">
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<br />
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<b>Ingredients</b><br />
<ul>
<li>19.4 oz blonde malt extract from an old brewing kit (I thought I'd use it up.)</li>
<li>7 lbs cracked American 2-row (Klages) malt</li>
<li>1 lbs cracked Munich malt</li>
<li>1 lbs cracked crystal malt 120</li>
<li>1/2 lbs cracked black patent malt</li>
<li>1/2 lbs cracked English chocolate malt</li>
<li>1/2 lbs cracked, roasted barley</li>
<li>1 oz German northern brewer hops</li>
<li>1 oz German Tettnang hops </li>
<li>3/4 cup dextrose</li>
<li>0.388 oz. Nottingham Dry Yeast</li>
<li>2.5 tsp diammonium phosphate</li>
<li>1 tsp Crosby & Baker yeast energizer</li>
<li>2 tsp gypsum</li>
<li>5-6 gallons Reverse Osmosis purified water</li>
<li>27 lbs ice</li>
</ul>
<a name='more'></a><b>Sanitizing</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
As always, it is important to sanitize all equipment. I mixed up about a gallon of one-step in my large ale pale for the purpose. While sanitizing my equipment I managed to break my hydrometer; so I will make this batch blind to the specific gravity of the wort. I am not too worried about that; although my natural curiosity makes me want to measure things.<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>Mashing</b><br />
<br />
The 2-row malt needs to be mashed and sparged. I combined the specialty grains with the base malt and allowed them to steep while mashing. There are mixed views about whether that is a good idea, but most folks seem to think it is okay.<br />
<br />
I used 10.5 pounds of malt. 1 quart of water per pound of malt is about 2.5 gallons of water (I won't quibble over a pint).<br />
<br />
At 1:06 PM the water reached 168 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F and I added the grain. A withdrawn sample of liquid turned a dark purple when I added iodine showing the presence of starches. I turned down the heat to try to maintain the temperature between 150-158 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F. In fact, at times the temperature drifted up as high as 178 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F. <br />
<br />
One of the drawbacks of combining the specialty grains with the base grain is that as the wort became darker, it was more difficult to discern whether iodine turned it purple and whether the starches had been converted to sugars. The iodine test was essentially worthless toward the end of the mashing process.<br />
<br />
I stopped the mash at 2:10 PM.<br />
<br />
<b>Sparging</b><br />
<br />
Mashing the base grain by itself might have allowed me to sparge the grain with a separate supply of water. Because I only have one large brew pot I had to adjust the sparging process.<br />
<br />
Out of necessity, I improvised my own sparging technique. I removed the grain bag from the brew pot, squeezed out liquid and put it in a frying pan. I squeezed out as much liquid as I could put the bag into a big mixing bowl and drained the liquid from the frying pan. I alternated putting the grain in the frying pan and in the bowl and squeezed out as much liquid as I could each time. Each time I poured the liquid into the brew pot.<br />
<br />
I poured all of the liquid into my ale pale, and then put the grain bag back in my brew pot, added the remainder of the water (except a cup that I put aside for pitching the yeast) and heated to 170 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F. I removed the grains, repeated my squeezing technique, and recombined all the liquid in the brew pot.<br />
<br />
<b>Boiling</b><br />
<br />
I added the malt extract and gypsum and put the wort on to boil. The wort came to a boil at 3:10 PM. At 3:30 PM, I added half of the Norther Brewer hops. At 3:43, I added the rest of the Northern Brewer hops.<br />
<br />
At 3:55 I removed the heat, and started my ice bath to cool the wort for fermentation.<br />
<br />
<b>Primary Fermentation</b><br />
<br />
I heated the cup that I put aside in the microwave up to just below 100 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F (50 seconds), added 1 tsp of diammonium phosphate, and put it aside to cool to 92 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F. At 4:20, I added the yeast.<br />
<br />
At 4:25 PM, the wort had cooled to about 75 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F. I siphoned it into the carboy. By 5:00 PM, I added the yeast, dry hopped the Tettnang hops, outfitted the carboy with a blow-tube, and was ready to clean up.<br />
<br />
<b>Re-racking</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
A week later I siphoned the wort into my ale pale. After I cleaned the carboy, I added <b> </b>another teaspoon<b> of </b>diammonium phosphate, 1 teaspoon Crosby & Baker yeast energizer, and re-introduced the wort to the carboy. This time I capped the carboy with a fermentation lock instead of a blow-tube.<br />
<br />
<b>Bottling</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
I bottled a week after re-racking, mostly because I went on vacation the following weekend. I added another 1/2 teaspoon of diammonium phosphate and all the dextrose during bottling. The taste was malty with a distinct burnt flavor.<br />
<br />
<b>Tasting</b><br />
<br />
It was carbonated, but not over-carbonated. It takes awhile to settle in the glass, but it did not spurt out of the bottle. After two weeks fermentation in the bottles, I opened the first bottle. My wife an I both independently had "chocolaty" as the first word to describe the ale. The burnt flavor was still there, but it was a little mellowed. The hops are a subtle aftertaste. The beer is not too sweet, but has a hint of sweetness. I am happy with how it turned out.<br />
<br />
<b>Sources</b><br />
<ul>
<li><a href="http://beerrecipes.org/showrecipe.php?recipeid=322">All Grain Porter</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2012/10/the-presidents-porter.html">The President's Porter</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.danstaryeast.com/products/nottingham-ale-yeast">Nottingham Dry Yeast</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.brewboard.com/index.php?showtopic=112455">Extract to Grain Conversion</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.howtobrew.com/section2/chapter13.html">Palmer, John How To Brew, Chapter 13</a></li>
<li><a href="http://homebrewmart.com/mashing.html">The Mashing Process/All Grain Brewing</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.brewingkb.com/homebrewing/Specialty-grains-and-mashing-3672.html">Specialty Grains and Mashing</a></li>
<li><a href="http://homebrew.stackexchange.com/questions/3230/what-are-the-pros-and-cons-of-adding-specialty-grains-to-the-mash">Home Brewing Beta</a></li>
</ul>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgshFYK4PasjLvegEMJZC7jFUqHodLrfBD_PnzHK9n7g4gshnmSVheSbpLWDMBybvUGXOtvXJ4cn6-6A99lp6fPp2bRaLE12eDQsMx5tgWoTzh-eOO68w-I-agpIKedQUsQ6BDt529K3ydI/s1600/IMG_2208.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgshFYK4PasjLvegEMJZC7jFUqHodLrfBD_PnzHK9n7g4gshnmSVheSbpLWDMBybvUGXOtvXJ4cn6-6A99lp6fPp2bRaLE12eDQsMx5tgWoTzh-eOO68w-I-agpIKedQUsQ6BDt529K3ydI/s320/IMG_2208.JPG" width="244" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
The medications I've tried are:<br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>Patanol (0.1% solution of olopatadine hydrochloride).</li>
<li>Pataday (0.2% solution of olopatadine hydrochloride).</li>
<li>Alaway (Ketotifen Fumarate).</li>
<li>Up & Up Eye Drops Allergy Relief (pheneramine maleate and naphazoline hydrochloride).</li>
</ul>
<div>
I previously wrote that both Alaway and Patanol worked well for me, but that Alaway had an uncomfortable sting. I now find the sting almost unbearable and prefer not to use Alaway, but I still do so in a pinch. Patanol works exceedingly well for me. I tried a free sample of Pataday; it worked fine, but I did not think it was any better than Patanol. The fourth option, which is Target's generic brand of allergy eye drops did absolutely nothing for me. No offense to Target; I like Target, but I think I'm a Patanol man.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjC4HoVuaAImneBOmuJtHsI6jmdxnF6yQCRJzeKJzB50JSRq333NC0PxU4uip8mM75d2TF87Zwlsdxm9VorUdzJGvfOs36QccKm9RLCxqxqB1KkwI8f2o-q4SGYEiZs3mqO5opfBv8cmjUp/s1600/pink-salt.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjC4HoVuaAImneBOmuJtHsI6jmdxnF6yQCRJzeKJzB50JSRq333NC0PxU4uip8mM75d2TF87Zwlsdxm9VorUdzJGvfOs36QccKm9RLCxqxqB1KkwI8f2o-q4SGYEiZs3mqO5opfBv8cmjUp/s400/pink-salt.bmp" width="295" /></a></div>
<br />
<a name='more'></a><b>Genetically Modified Organisms in Salt</b><br />
<br />
Salt is a mineral. It is not an organism. It does not have genes; it does not have DNA. If you read the <a href="http://www.mnn.com/food/healthy-eating/blogs/facepalm-of-the-week-non-gmo-salt">comments on Shea Gunther's post</a>, the company responds and more-or-less admits that its target customers are not informed enough to know the difference.<br />
<br />
It is true that some salts have dextrose (d-glucose), or corn sugar, added. The sugar itself is not an organism and does not have DNA, but it is possible that the corn it came from could be genetically modified. There would be zero difference in the dextrose extracted, however. Dextrose is dextrose.<br />
<br />
<b>Hazards of Fluoride</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Some parts of the world have very high levels of naturally occurring fluoride. Fluoride at very high levels is known to have detrimental health effects. Overexposure at lower levels can cause dental fluorosis, a disturbance in the tooth enamel. The overwhelming weight of scientific evidence is that fluoridation of water between 700 ppb and 1.2 ppm is safe. 700 ppb is the new recommendation for fluoridation since most Americans have access to other sources of fluoride such as their toothpaste.<br />
<br />
<b>GMOs and Fluoride</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
My unsubstantiated but reasonable hunch is that many people who are worried about GMOs in their food are also overly concerned about exposure to fluoride. So it made me wonder if they are concerned about the fluoride in natural sources of salt such as Himalayan Pink Rock Salt. The irony is that refined salt is very pure sodium chloride and has very little fluoride, whereas natural sources of salt are likely to have fluoride.<br />
<br />
<b>Fluoride in Pink Rock Salt?</b><br />
<br />
Undoubtedly there is fluoride in most naturally occurring salts. The pertinent question is: how much? Many substances that are beneficial at low concentrations can be detrimental at higher concentrations. The Internet is full of speculation and unsupported claims about how much fluoride is in Himalayan Pink Rock Salt. To get a good answer, one should review analysis in the peer-reviewed literature. <br />
<br />
I did, however find one <a href="http://www.saltnews.com/chemical-analysis-natural-himalayan-pink-salt/">site</a> on the Internet that purports to provide a chemical analysis of this salt. The original source is from <i>Water & Salt: The Essence of Life</i>, by Peter Ferreira and Dr. Barbara Hendel, M.D.<span style="background-color: #f9f9e9; color: #333333; font-family: Verdana, Georgia, Tahoma, Verdana, serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18.5625px;"> </span><br />
<br />
The analysis only shows that the amount of fluoride is less than their detection limit of 100 mg/kg. According to such an analysis, there could be far less fluoride than that level. It does not tell us how much fluoride is actually present. If I have time and I'm still interested, I may do a literature search in the future to see if I can find better data. In the meantime, if someone beats me to the punch, please comment below.<br />
<br />
<b>A Thought Experiment</b><br />
<br />
One gram of table salt is equal to 0.18 tsp. So what is the mass of one tsp of salt?<br />
<br />
1 tsp x 1 g / 0.18 tsp = 5.6 g<br />
<br />
Natural salts do not have exactly the same as density as pure sodium chloride; so applying this number to those salts is approximate, but it is not far off.<br />
<br />
100 mg/kg is equal to 100 micrograms (<span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px;">μ</span>g)/g. So if we assume the salt could have as much as 100 mg/kg of fluoride, it would have 560 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px;">μ</span>g fluoride per teaspoon.<br />
<br />
Compare that to the drinking water recommendation of 700 ppb (700 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19.1875px;">μ</span>g/liter). So consuming 1 tsp of salt with the aforementioned amount of fluoride is equivalent to drinking a little less than a liter of water at the recommended fluoridation level.<br />
<br />
More precisely, it would be equivalent to drinking 570/700 or 814 milliliters (mL).<br />
<br />
<b>Should You Worry?</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
In a word, no, but you should not worry about fluoride in your water either, or GMOs for that matter, but that's another story. Having said that, natural salts can have a lot of other minerals in them too and they are not all necessarily good for you, but I would not particularly worry about that.<br />
<br />
<b>What If I Want To Worry About Something</b><br />
<br />
Worry about arsenic in your water supply. The EPA recently lowered the standard to 10 ppb, and many communities do not meet that level. Worry about bacteria in your water supply. Worry about food-born pathogens. These are real problems that actually kill people, a lot of people. Worry about people who do not vaccinate their children. Worry about photochemical smog and respiratory disease. Worry about toxic cigarette smoke. Worry about the repercussions of global warming.<br />
<br />
I worry about the repercussions of scientific illiteracy. I worry that people have opinions because of something they once read on the Internet, or because they want to fit in with people who share their views. I worry that people do not understand how to evaluate evidence, how to think about it, and how to weigh risks against each other. Don't listen to me, however; I am part of the global conspiracy.<br />
<br />
<b>Postscript (5/20/2013)</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
After writing this post, I found a <a href="http://theprogessivecontrarian.wordpress.com/2013/05/15/is-himalayan-non-gmo-pink-salt-radioactive/#comment-1207">blog</a> called the Progressive Contrarian that cites the chemical analysis to make a similar point, but unfortunately, they compounded the problem by responding to scientific illiteracy with scientific illiteracy:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<span style="background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px; orphans: 4;">A visit to the site saltnews.com has a </span><a href="http://www.saltnews.com/chemical-analysis-natural-himalayan-pink-salt/" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: rgb(240, 29, 79); background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #01a0db; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px; margin: 0px; orphans: 4; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank">chemical breakdown</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px; orphans: 4;"> of all the natural elements in this purest of pure salts. Among those are </span><em style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px; margin: 0px; orphans: 4; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">fluoride, arsenic, lead, plutonium, uranium,</em><span style="background-color: white; color: #444444; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px; orphans: 4;"> and </span><em style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #444444; font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 21px; margin: 0px; orphans: 4; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">polonium.</em></blockquote>
The chemical study that they cited (the same one that I cited) shows that the concentrations of fluoride, arsenic, lead, plutonium, uranium, and polonium are all less than a given value, presumably the method-detection limit of the analytic procedure. It does not mean that these elements are present. It means that they failed to detect these elements with the sensitivity of their methods.<b><br /></b>
<b><br /></b><br />
<b>Post-Postscript (5/22/2013)</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Amazon sells gmo-free pink salt with "no chemicals." I left a helpful <a href="http://amzn.to/12014bB" target="_blank">review</a>.<br />
<br />
<b>Sources</b><br />
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.mnn.com/food/healthy-eating/blogs/facepalm-of-the-week-non-gmo-salt" target="_blank">Facepalm of the week: Non-GMO salt!?</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/features/fluoride-childrens-health-grandjean-choi/">Impact of fluoride on neurological development in children</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db53.htm">Prevalence and Severity of Dental Fluorosis in the United States, 1999-2004</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2011pres/01/20110107a.html">HHS and EPA announce new scientific assessments and actions on fluoride</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.cdc.gov/FLUORIDATION/safety/nas.htm" target="_blank">National Academy of Sciences on Fluoride in Drinking Water</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.saltnews.com/chemical-analysis-natural-himalayan-pink-salt/">Chemical Analysis of Natural Himalayan Pink Rock Salt</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.traditionaloven.com/culinary-arts/cooking/table-salt/convert-gram-g-to-tea-spoon-tsp.html">Table Salt Conversion</a></li>
<li><a href="http://theprogessivecontrarian.wordpress.com/2013/05/15/is-himalayan-non-gmo-pink-salt-radioactive/#comment-1207" target="_blank">Is Himalayan “Non-GMO” Pink Salt Radioactive?</a></li>
<li><a href="http://amzn.to/12014bB">Amazon Review of Pink Salt</a>.</li>
</ul>
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In reality the world is much more nuanced. At high concentration naturally occurring fluoride in the water supply can have negative health effects. At the concentrations in which it is added artificially to water supplies (700 ppb to 1.2 <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/07/how-to-convert-to-and-from-parts-per.html">ppm</a>); it's beneficial. Most chemotherapy drugs are really bad for you, but maybe they are better than cancer. Pesticides are very dangerous compounds, but mosquitoes can be deadly. Carbon (see <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2013/04/carbon-poison-our-food.html">Carbon: Poison in Our Food</a> ) can be toxic as hydrogen cyanide, a nutrient such as a carbohydrate, a fuel like methane, or a greenhouse gas like methane and carbon dioxide. Ozone in the troposphere is pollution, a result of photochemical smog. Ozone in the stratosphere protects us from UV radiation.<br />
<br />
I suspect it is tempting to do the same with people. There is a school of thought that people can be easily categorized as good or bad. Good people are like us; they believe what we do; we can trust them; they would never hurt a fly. People who do bad things must be unlike us. We search for reasons to categorize them as unlike us, rather than recognizing that but for the good choices we happen to have made, we could be those people. I suspect that this way of looking at the world is pernicious. It isolates us from the understanding that our choices have consequences, and that we ourselves have to be ever alert that we do not become what we despise.<div class="blogger-post-footer"><script type="text/javascript">
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<b><span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">Learn about the new hazard THEY are putting in our food!!!</span></b><script type="text/javascript">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiODT6XdXoSl2UVl-kWbNIRYBYVFIyJ50RNApXnYVRsGjulKdu2rNOLvPyxcSYjKvzA00anWslhaj_B3SLZoCWO9VwL7yWv0pyCwVabCrWckSYwx_bZLGc3235osTCWVYEV4TvSjec5oxjV/s1600/Cpoison.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiODT6XdXoSl2UVl-kWbNIRYBYVFIyJ50RNApXnYVRsGjulKdu2rNOLvPyxcSYjKvzA00anWslhaj_B3SLZoCWO9VwL7yWv0pyCwVabCrWckSYwx_bZLGc3235osTCWVYEV4TvSjec5oxjV/s1600/Cpoison.bmp" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: red; font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: large;">You will never guess what they are putting in our food. Even organic locally grown food contains this poison!!!</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Consider the Facts about Carbon:</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<ol>
<li><b>Carbon</b> is a principal component of the <b>deadly nerve gas</b> sarin.</li>
<li>In the history of chemical <b>warfare</b>, more people have <b>died</b> from phosgene gas than any other chemical agent used on the battlefield. Phosgene contains <b>carbon</b>.</li>
<li><b>Deadly</b> hydrogen cyanide gas contains <b>carbon</b>.</li>
<li><b>100%</b> of biological tissue from <b>cancer </b>patients contains <b>carbon.</b></li>
<li><b>Carbon</b> compounds are implicated in <b>climate change</b>.</li>
<li>Every human <b>disease</b> ever known can be associated with <b>carbon</b>!!!!</li>
<li>The <b>Nazis</b> ate food with <b>carbon</b> in it.</li>
</ol>
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Tell <b>Monsanto</b>, <b>Big Pharma</b>, and <b>Big Farm A</b> that you do not want carbon in your food. Join the movement to insist that our food producers start growing natural food without this toxic poison!</div>
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<span style="color: orange; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: x-large;">Stop Poisoning Your Body Today!</span></div>
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In my last blog post, <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2012/10/the-presidents-porter.html">The President's Porter</a>, I wrote about making a variant on the Whitehouse's Honey Porter. That made me think about using honey as the sugar for fermentation, which naturally led me to think about making mead.</div>
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The principal sugar used in making beer is maltose, a dissacharide made from two units of glucose. The sugar in honey, by contrast, is principally invert sugar. Invert sugar is a mixture of the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Fructose and glucose can also form a dissacharide called sucrose, cane sugar. The reason invert sugar has its name is that a mixture of fructose and glucose rotates plane-polarized light in the opposite direction from sucrose.</div>
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Invert sugar is very sweet and honey makes an excellent starting material for mead, a honey wine.</div>
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</div>
<b>Ingredients</b><br />
<ul>
<li>18 lbs. honey</li>
<li>1 lb. ginger</li>
<li>3 tsp. diammonium phosphate</li>
<li>3 tsp. Crosby & Baker yeast energizer</li>
<li>Spring water to make up 5 gallons</li>
<li>2 pkg champagne yeast</li>
<li>3/4 cup dextrose</li>
</ul>
<b>Invert Sugar</b><br />
<br />
Both sucrose a d-glucose (dextrose) rotate plane polarized light to the the right. Fructose (sometimes levrose or levulose) rotates plane-polarized light to the left, but more strongly than glucose does to the right; so converting sucrose to a mixture of levrose and dextrose changes the direction it rotates plane-polarized light.<br />
<br />
<b>Preparing the Must</b><br />
<br />
My recipe is based upon a recipe from the <a href="http://www.homebrewersassociation.org/pages/community/blog/show?title=mead-recipe-of-the-week-sparkling-ginger-mead">Home Brewer's Association</a>, but I took some liberties. I used honey from a variety of sources, some store bought, some from stands at the Farmer's market. 18 lbs. of honey is a lot of honey! I dissolved the honey in about 2 gallons of bottled spring water. I dipped the ginger in sanitizing solution, put the ginger in a food processor, smashed it all up skins and all, and then added it to the must. I heated the must up to 180 <span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;">F</span> for more than 10 minutes to ensure that any undesirable microorganisms were killed. I added water to five gallons, cooled the mixture to 100 <span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;">F</span> in an ice bath. The must had a specific gravity of 1.115 at 100 <span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;">F</span> adding a temperature correction of 0.006 results in a specific gravity of 1.121. The potential alcohol is a whopping 16.2, in reality the yeast won't support such a high content.<br />
<br />
I added 1 tsp each of the yeast energizer and the diammonium phosphate to 4 oz. of water, added the yeast and let it sit.<br />
<br />
I put the must in a 5 gallon carboy, pitched the yeast, set up a blow-tube, and let it ferment for two weeks.<br />
<br />
<b>Fermentation</b><br />
<br />
After two weeks, the mead had a specific gravity of 1.070 at 60 <span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;">F, a potential alcohol of 9.4; so the mead had an alcohol content of approximately 6.8 % by volume (5.4% by weight). The flavor was of a sweet and fairly strong mead with pronounced ginger.</span><script type="text/javascript">
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;">I re-re-racked the must, straining as much ginger out as I could. I added another teaspoon each of yeast energizer and diammonium phosphate.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;">After another week, the hydrometer reading was of 1.040 at </span>65 <span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;">F. At that temperature a correction of 0.0006 is required for a specific gravity of 1.0406, for a potential alcohol of 5.4%. Subtracting that from the original potential alcohol yields an alcohol content of 10.8% by volume, or 8.64% by weight.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;">I added the 3/4 cup of dextrose for priming sugar (probably not really necessary as the mead still has plenty of sugar to ferment) and another teaspoon each of </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;">yeast energizer and diammonium phosphate. I bottled the mead and waited another two week.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;"><b>The Final Product</b></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;">The mead is as sparkling as champagne. Because I used beer bottles, it is a good idea to open it over a sink. The hydrometer read 1.020 at 37 </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;">F, where a correction of -0.001 should be applied; so the specific gravity is 1.019 corresponding to a potential alcohol of about 2.6%. Subtracting that value from the original value yields an alcohol content of 13.6% by volume or 10.9% by weight. This mead is strong stuff. It still tastes sweet with distinct flavors of honey and ginger. It also has a hint of champagne, but one that is a bit too sweet.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;"> </span><br />
<br />
<b>Sources</b><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.homebrewersassociation.org/pages/community/blog/show?title=mead-recipe-of-the-week-sparkling-ginger-mead">Home Brewer's Association Recipe</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.rsc.org/Education/EiC/issues/2012January/chirality-in-sugars.asp">Chirality in sugars</a></li>
</ul>
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<br />
The recipe I used is based upon the Whitehouse recipe. My local brew store was out of Nottingham yeast; so I am used Windsor yeast. I used a local organic honey instead of Whitehouse honey. I used 9.6 HBU of bittering hops instead og 10 HBU, and 1 oz. or aromatic hops instead of 1/2 oz., because the quantities are more convenient, and a little more aromatic hops never hurt anyone. I used diammonium phosphate as a yeast nutrient, and gypsum for flavor. Also, I will use a process that is somewhat modified from the Whitehouse process that I will describe here. <script type="text/javascript">
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<a name='more'></a><b>Emerald House Honey Porter</b><br />
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<b>Ingredients:</b><br />
<ul>
<li>6.6 lbs. Cooper's Light Malt Extract</li>
<li>0.75 lbs. cracked Munich Malt</li>
<li>1 lb. cracked Crystal 20 Malt</li>
<li>6 oz. cracked Black Malt</li>
<li>3 oz. cracked Chocolate Malt</li>
<li>1 lb. local pure raw honey</li>
<li>1 oz. German Northern Brewer hops</li>
<li>1 oz. German Hallertau hops</li>
<li>3/4 cup dextrose</li>
<li>0.388 oz. Windsor Yeast</li>
<li>1 tsp diammonium phosphate</li>
<li>2 tsp gypsum</li>
<li>5-6 gallons Rocky Mountain spring water</li>
</ul>
<b>Preparation</b><br />
<br />
First, I sanitized everything.<br />
<br />
I put the grains in hop bags, covered with water, heated to 160 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F, and let them steep. As they steeped, I adjusted the temperature with the goal to keep it between 155-165 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F. During the process, it got as hot as 180 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">°</span>F, and as cool as 140 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">°</span>F.<br />
<br />
I drained the liquid into my 5 gallon brew pot, rinsed the grains in more 155-165 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F water and squeezed the excess liquid from the grains into the same pot. I discarded the grains. I added the remainder of my first 2.5 gallons of water to the brew pot and put it on to boil.<br />
<br />
While the wort was heating I added the honey, the malt extract, the gypsum, and the diammonium phosphate.<br />
<br />
I brought the wort to a boil and added half the Northern Brewer hops after about 10-15 minutes. In another 15 minutes I added the remainder and boiled the wort for another 15 minutes.<br />
<br />
I opened another 2.5 gallon container of water that I had put in the refrigerator and decanted a cup. It had only had time to cool to 65 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F. I heated the cup of water to 85 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F in a microwave and added the dry yeast.<br />
<br />
I poured the remainder into the the brew pot with the hot wort, and measured the temperature at 16:08 as 120 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F. At 16:20, it cooled to 115 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F. I went to my neighborhood convenience store and invested $5 in a 20 pound bag of ice. At 16:27, the wort had cooled to 105 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F. At 16:49, it reached 80 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F, and I removed the wort from the ice.<br />
<br />
<b>Fermentation</b><br />
<br />
At 80 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F, the hydrometer read 1.055 on the specific gravity scale. At that temperature I have to add a correction of 0.0022, but my accuracy is at best to the thousandths, so rounding the specific gravity is 1.057. That puts my potential alcohol at 7.7% by volume, or about 6.2% by mass.<br />
<br />
I siphoned the wort into the carboy, dry-hopped the German Hallertau hops, and pitched the yeast.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhklhCXZRhjfIRhVhXnQaya0IQRma0yHaij9d56eYGZC4IZ5SAIjo0lH5h6P4343CexThmuHyp2ITvk9HUeATUNObPJ2Lpa9c1toIHQ5x16Tax5EJwG1P3GTdyiQothn4yZeedUWZsnn82M/s1600/IMG_4203.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhklhCXZRhjfIRhVhXnQaya0IQRma0yHaij9d56eYGZC4IZ5SAIjo0lH5h6P4343CexThmuHyp2ITvk9HUeATUNObPJ2Lpa9c1toIHQ5x16Tax5EJwG1P3GTdyiQothn4yZeedUWZsnn82M/s320/IMG_4203.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The wort in the carboy.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
I tasted the wort and found it to taste like a sweet, flat porter, which is I suppose what I expected. It definitely had a good malty flavor. The sample I tasted had a lot of the hops that did not get siphoned.
<br />
<br />
This time I used a blow-out tube instead of a fermentation lock.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNDQu2nSZorThQOMgVlXiW5w2r1MvUZiqP4Cmy-sO8kmbaUfO4AmC6Ye4SiFuBF6EinhbN_tO97TRs6ufJDA7KTSFJcBjrDuCeQ5Mcs-IjzjqXIR3nbKHN7FdOmD-VTxEr_qvUbJoPpZGZ/s1600/IMG_4204.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNDQu2nSZorThQOMgVlXiW5w2r1MvUZiqP4Cmy-sO8kmbaUfO4AmC6Ye4SiFuBF6EinhbN_tO97TRs6ufJDA7KTSFJcBjrDuCeQ5Mcs-IjzjqXIR3nbKHN7FdOmD-VTxEr_qvUbJoPpZGZ/s320/IMG_4204.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The wort with a blowout tube.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
The tube is submerged beneath a sanitizer solution. The carbon dioxide can bubble out, but oxygen cannot get in.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQ1RQ0LFECcKSSvEAmmC8f7qUIFJrTc0GFe1ZQJWyD4qk_TZcA5utWYsLEHeb2mJDATHrWoH-LrmgXOxAo25C49ffDGOl4odTxcroGJHqEDxtRAizub_GoudeKhyphenhyphenDyA7TDxPKvX8VJ5TdF/s1600/IMG_4205.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQ1RQ0LFECcKSSvEAmmC8f7qUIFJrTc0GFe1ZQJWyD4qk_TZcA5utWYsLEHeb2mJDATHrWoH-LrmgXOxAo25C49ffDGOl4odTxcroGJHqEDxtRAizub_GoudeKhyphenhyphenDyA7TDxPKvX8VJ5TdF/s320/IMG_4205.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The other end of the blowout tube is submerged beneath sanitizer.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
The purpose of using a blowout tube is to avoid fermenting wort from pushing through the fermentation lock as I experienced <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2012/09/amateur-summer-amber.html">last time</a>.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJEhmAp4bIcFDESd7prVUrvHiZGmMkQD6Ae-zSifAW0Y80qaV8ATFHEk6m5wvI88J6t_iF2uj1CjhEPwc9RWEY3ZhcRZIuIPlqGGHjccz62a_mB3XpMQi_x-yRjz5uqbs-iYqmXEnt9G8M/s1600/IMG_4180.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="239" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJEhmAp4bIcFDESd7prVUrvHiZGmMkQD6Ae-zSifAW0Y80qaV8ATFHEk6m5wvI88J6t_iF2uj1CjhEPwc9RWEY3ZhcRZIuIPlqGGHjccz62a_mB3XpMQi_x-yRjz5uqbs-iYqmXEnt9G8M/s320/IMG_4180.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A full carboy can overwhelm a fermentation lock as it did on my last batch.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<b>Reracking</b><br />
<br />
After five days of fermentation, I re-racked the wort. I siphoned it into an ale bucket, cleaned the carboy, and put the wort back in the carboy. Re-racking allows time for secondary fermentation that should help prevent over-carbonation. The primary cause of over-carbonation in my last batch was over-priming from being confused about my own recipe, but this time I took measurements as well.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhN0xTvqvEa0Tz6dhszUYFl6m8HAZlEBy3aJJqBaKAjoANRYHb7pukI8rhm3gObGxUSkIudWKGt01T4sndJZsgWY4fNWhxsawhAoOKHMxIzT9XbiS_13yIHp1V3OGMbnk8Q8jBAvZzChce9/s1600/IMG_4206.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhN0xTvqvEa0Tz6dhszUYFl6m8HAZlEBy3aJJqBaKAjoANRYHb7pukI8rhm3gObGxUSkIudWKGt01T4sndJZsgWY4fNWhxsawhAoOKHMxIzT9XbiS_13yIHp1V3OGMbnk8Q8jBAvZzChce9/s320/IMG_4206.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">R-racking the wort.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<br />
At this stage I measured a specific gravity of 1.021. At 70 <span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span class="Unicode">°</span></span>F, I have to add a correction of 0.001; so the specific gravity was 1.022. The potential alcohol is 3%. Since the original potential alcohol reading was 7.7%, the wort has an alcohol content of 4.7% by volume, or about 3.8% by mass. I put the fermentation lock on the carboy this time; the primary fermentation is over and I should not have to worry about blowout.<br />
<br />
At this point the wort had most of the flavor of a porter, it was malty with a very slightly burned caramel flavor. It was sweeter and hoppier than the final product, and of course, there was no carbonation yet.<br />
<br />
<b>Bottling</b><br />
<br />
After a week, the corrected specific gravity was 1.019, or 2.4% on the potential alcohol scale. So the approximate alcohol content by volume is 7.7% - 2.4% = 5.3%. The wort tasted much more like porter now. It had a little of the burnt flavor of some porters and a hint of honey. I could taste the hops, but not so strongly as before. I boiled some Rocky mountain Spring Water, added the priming sugar and bottled. I use mostly dark bottles, but I like to use a couple of clear bottles so that I can observe what is happening.<br />
<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNPy6ulTsPvwJARB0ZG__CdbQFXjNaNnMndpn1ZcTc8hWBuqf6LADy4i2ULZdqzwMko34_VXqVpPio64kOCfwHh33tacWSgv4JVVqNauQwCDQU_Lt-TuNupuq_OZrJVX2G52L2_929RVr-/s1600/IMG_4213.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNPy6ulTsPvwJARB0ZG__CdbQFXjNaNnMndpn1ZcTc8hWBuqf6LADy4i2ULZdqzwMko34_VXqVpPio64kOCfwHh33tacWSgv4JVVqNauQwCDQU_Lt-TuNupuq_OZrJVX2G52L2_929RVr-/s320/IMG_4213.JPG" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<b>Final Product</b><br />
<br />
This time there was no issue with over-carbonation. The beer tastes somewhat sweet and has a distinct flavor of honey. The black and chocolate malt flavors come through well. There is a hint of hops, but it is by no means a hoppie beer. The beer was foamy enough that it was difficult to get an accurate specific gravity reading. It should be a little stronger than 5.3% alcohol by volume, or about 4.2% by mass.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHVru-qTrXkPc5uSlhiO4GmS7G4PGknTlxvB0TL6ulFOO2xs00octnoQX-MjdrkABpwdpf4DGcmgGnUApzF0wYQW28VVsSTCrTGI1-62TqgDmcwGQyNMh2e3N8_z7iyrNEcXPMkRxxeh_H/s1600/IMG_4216.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="239" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHVru-qTrXkPc5uSlhiO4GmS7G4PGknTlxvB0TL6ulFOO2xs00octnoQX-MjdrkABpwdpf4DGcmgGnUApzF0wYQW28VVsSTCrTGI1-62TqgDmcwGQyNMh2e3N8_z7iyrNEcXPMkRxxeh_H/s320/IMG_4216.JPG" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
<b>Sources</b><br />
<ul>
<li><b><a data-bitly-type="bitly_hover_card" href="http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2012/09/01/ale-chief-white-house-beer-recipe" style="background-color: white; color: #3d85c6; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 24px; text-decoration: none;">Ale to the Chief</a></b></li>
</ul>
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<br />
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<br />
I am far from an expert when it comes to brewing; so I decided to keep it simple by brewing a pure extract beer. I did create my own recipe, but it is very similar to recipes in a couple of my references below.<br />
<br />
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<ul>
<li>3.3 lbs. Cooper's Light Malt Extract</li>
<li>2 lbs. Munton's Amber Dry Malt</li>
<li>2 tsp. Gypsum</li>
<li>1/8 tsp. Kosher Salt (approximate)</li>
<li>1 oz. German Northern Brewer Hop Pellets</li>
<li>1 oz. UK Kent Golding Hop Pellets</li>
<li>1 tsp. Diammonium Phosphate</li>
<li>11 g. Nottingham Ale Yeast (I know I'm mixing metric and English, but 0.388 oz seemed like a ridiculous measure)</li>
<li>1.5 lbs corn sugar for priming. (Don't follow my mistake. Use 3/4 cup)</li>
</ul>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwVzCYJvpsYOJac0F8ZUKjgdN_R2wA9YLYUk-kmkWHB1CM-X8fIbBQsvvp1PdQ3j-3sFq6J5krgiLdnc3hUZmi18iwuN_BexoGHDVxULtV0fhyphenhyphen-3lWgO0oISVPqwxHDGayMhmglCLyCBfB/s1600/IMG_4127.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwVzCYJvpsYOJac0F8ZUKjgdN_R2wA9YLYUk-kmkWHB1CM-X8fIbBQsvvp1PdQ3j-3sFq6J5krgiLdnc3hUZmi18iwuN_BexoGHDVxULtV0fhyphenhyphen-3lWgO0oISVPqwxHDGayMhmglCLyCBfB/s320/IMG_4127.JPG" width="242" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ingredients</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div>
I rinsed and sanitized all the equipment. The purpose of rinsing is to clean any debris. I used plenty of water and rinsed the carboy, the boiling pot, and all the equipment. I did not use any soap. Soap leaves a residue that is hard to eliminate and potentially adds a bad flavor to the beer.</div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzmLklwyTSU0nat3bLVaDhtyOgvRpeD3UmCKk5ltV027-7bNKUSlnR82T3uiDGoBNF4QI-CqEq_I-LIpUzbIDbG5cJJW7E5jzkR7NfDzau01ddkgXiU2BfWBxFj8e6Xv_0IOth3VXNSkRo/s1600/IMG_4129.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzmLklwyTSU0nat3bLVaDhtyOgvRpeD3UmCKk5ltV027-7bNKUSlnR82T3uiDGoBNF4QI-CqEq_I-LIpUzbIDbG5cJJW7E5jzkR7NfDzau01ddkgXiU2BfWBxFj8e6Xv_0IOth3VXNSkRo/s320/IMG_4129.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cleaning the carboy</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
To sanitize the equipment I used 1-Step sanitizer. It contains percarbonates that sanitize by oxidizing and undesirable wee beasties.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuicpIBCBI_IZBpIX9RJN-wSRTbGxqoTLr8KgnpCGD2YbnxsXezt_x2WH9LXxf8kXCTYNPs39yXylThXN2giXRHUmlzqrTGSd8RIF5pyOG2U4hHPWBhrssZIkh9Tis2CLwMljqrv7fjXkO/s1600/IMG_4128.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuicpIBCBI_IZBpIX9RJN-wSRTbGxqoTLr8KgnpCGD2YbnxsXezt_x2WH9LXxf8kXCTYNPs39yXylThXN2giXRHUmlzqrTGSd8RIF5pyOG2U4hHPWBhrssZIkh9Tis2CLwMljqrv7fjXkO/s320/IMG_4128.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sanitizer</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Sodium percarbonate, for example, is an adduct between two sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and hydrogen peroxide, with three parts hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). It is not necessary to rinse because its breakdown products are harmless and will not change the flavor.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiNyBifI8NA7ZrinJtPm8Dxb2UWmC2hAuRVh0QK149Tuwtoo1Wfjc4cvZ4CglYoSUjmZM83C_9t4Ofv_mt2jA3C6691gv5jltnPZhFqMUbX8zI8GrwO443OptDR87LqM22WmIbBJYWFxND/s1600/IMG_4130.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiNyBifI8NA7ZrinJtPm8Dxb2UWmC2hAuRVh0QK149Tuwtoo1Wfjc4cvZ4CglYoSUjmZM83C_9t4Ofv_mt2jA3C6691gv5jltnPZhFqMUbX8zI8GrwO443OptDR87LqM22WmIbBJYWFxND/s320/IMG_4130.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sanitizing equipment</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjI4c78d2Tdym6Fi-f7BAjN_7VtZ9XnROJPRlm5J6_yOaTEwzOs_3naKc2KlbHU01YvNhyphenhypheniAOSj1LavxNDA0xycJ-dSmUP-yAhNjv8V5RmdfzqPTz2e67G91OVj1dq3QO2M-G1b_jorWFyk/s1600/IMG_4131.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjI4c78d2Tdym6Fi-f7BAjN_7VtZ9XnROJPRlm5J6_yOaTEwzOs_3naKc2KlbHU01YvNhyphenhypheniAOSj1LavxNDA0xycJ-dSmUP-yAhNjv8V5RmdfzqPTz2e67G91OVj1dq3QO2M-G1b_jorWFyk/s320/IMG_4131.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sanitized equipment</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
I rehydrated the yeast in 4 oz. of water at 30-35 C. Actual value was 33.5 C.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVCaBisrqNvKnups67AdmM9G7pdfa-uaOMn2_EaGev1RQDOGtcr8j1OWLAG35DEiMpzg6ZhT1w4pQVutLt4JtDX-tAf4Vh_mcBw9kUVftGEQgt0rOWnWMeHKyJ2suL1pyYVhyphenhyphenwzhZaW_Gk/s1600/IMG_4138.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVCaBisrqNvKnups67AdmM9G7pdfa-uaOMn2_EaGev1RQDOGtcr8j1OWLAG35DEiMpzg6ZhT1w4pQVutLt4JtDX-tAf4Vh_mcBw9kUVftGEQgt0rOWnWMeHKyJ2suL1pyYVhyphenhyphenwzhZaW_Gk/s320/IMG_4138.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Yeast</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Yeast are eukaryotes; that means they are more closely related to us than organisms such as bacteria. Eukaryotic cells have defined nucleii. Like all living things, yeast uses respiration to survive. In this process, the yeast break down sugars and in the process produce adenosine triphosphate, which is the currency that cells use for energy.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEzDxYd-DAY0FAQvEcQFbPEpG2abQ0hkCGQTrcXpB5oVhqWSQE553MTf7NjBLKgfjD07lxUmJ2TDb332J24x_GdOMcNx2yG7SwqgEFkvwzGlCMuZPUpo8Dbklyrn8Dj4iXoPLCN2WAqZqt/s1600/IMG_4139.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEzDxYd-DAY0FAQvEcQFbPEpG2abQ0hkCGQTrcXpB5oVhqWSQE553MTf7NjBLKgfjD07lxUmJ2TDb332J24x_GdOMcNx2yG7SwqgEFkvwzGlCMuZPUpo8Dbklyrn8Dj4iXoPLCN2WAqZqt/s320/IMG_4139.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Waiting for water to cool</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The first step in respiration is glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, the second step is fermentation. Fermentation yield ethanol as a by product. As we all should know by now, ethanol is more than just a solvent.<br />
<br />
Carbon dioxide is a by-product of all respiration. Readers of this blog know that <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/01/primer-on-infrared-spectroscopy-and.html">carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas</a>, but the carbon in all living things ultimately comes from the carbon dioxide that is in the atmosphere. Green plants use the carbon from carbon dioxide to build sugars. All living things that we know about survive by oxidizing carbon back into carbon dioxide. It is a cycle.<br />
<br />
More interestingly, perhaps, carbon dioxide will carbonate our beer. The yeast cooled to room temperature while I did the rest of the preparation. Perhaps, it would be better to prepare the yeast later, but the fermentation will occur at room temperature anyway; so it is probably not a big issue.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhEsnoqn76-T85F-Q6DQO8zxauSu75dWuPvZfCPsTwx-BmKqyBJaCb7m2eHkitDNtd7aeo7rtekhqOhpNRRxvqdUa6x98Zs9CsMlIBzGtXfMxLhezoWhTJsDnf01GjpIZhYMqKWjPYoL0U/s1600/IMG_4140.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhEsnoqn76-T85F-Q6DQO8zxauSu75dWuPvZfCPsTwx-BmKqyBJaCb7m2eHkitDNtd7aeo7rtekhqOhpNRRxvqdUa6x98Zs9CsMlIBzGtXfMxLhezoWhTJsDnf01GjpIZhYMqKWjPYoL0U/s320/IMG_4140.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rehydrated yeast</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
I boiled 5 gallons of Rocky Mountain Spring Water.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVUjKnCbXWejeprmylYVWdxbFr5e6HCGw0CTJcezZ0CGSw2kfd3GTfw3M_9EZ9204RUgGQmOixLOuqVVRyxnflML_IGbRinogQnhiL_TytvwbrMtgEutxe-0ASWinQ6a83nezeFzcw88dO/s1600/IMG_4134.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjVUjKnCbXWejeprmylYVWdxbFr5e6HCGw0CTJcezZ0CGSw2kfd3GTfw3M_9EZ9204RUgGQmOixLOuqVVRyxnflML_IGbRinogQnhiL_TytvwbrMtgEutxe-0ASWinQ6a83nezeFzcw88dO/s320/IMG_4134.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rocky Mountain spring water<br />
<br /></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
One could, of course, use tap water. It's perfectly safe, especially after boiling. In fact, my tap water a combination of Rocky Mountain spring water and snow melt, but it does pick up a lot of off flavors when processed at the water treatment plant. I decided that it was a good idea to start off good beer with good water.<br />
<br class="Apple-interchange-newline" />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvu_QTr0mg32teXIbBxhL9iZchrBg60RJIwGkHujKY_cehSXKOTuQ1qMOF6aCALGeLSmgGwp02ErRhtcGaNjLawV_F4kwXrMQfGwVrcr0BCAsED90tedrSPSs9PCsRppPMhNNsi62h3I1N/s1600/IMG_4135.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvu_QTr0mg32teXIbBxhL9iZchrBg60RJIwGkHujKY_cehSXKOTuQ1qMOF6aCALGeLSmgGwp02ErRhtcGaNjLawV_F4kwXrMQfGwVrcr0BCAsED90tedrSPSs9PCsRppPMhNNsi62h3I1N/s320/IMG_4135.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Piercing the water so that it will flow</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
If one opens the spigot to a water container, gravity will cause the water to spill out, but atmospheric pressure pushes against this flow. Piercing the container allows the water to flow free.<br />
<br class="Apple-interchange-newline" />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhv_3MF4ur1-gElpzZRCuC5OmNoqhMYcFbLPfex5rWflrDoKuCsUezu6tKWcuDQi72m-Lml9s_cCWZL6mNhWZs3w8uJ5xi4uKF4xTNPCh70SkEec8h8JXJwQVOBL18yu_sZRpTs5h-AW-xh/s1600/IMG_4143.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhv_3MF4ur1-gElpzZRCuC5OmNoqhMYcFbLPfex5rWflrDoKuCsUezu6tKWcuDQi72m-Lml9s_cCWZL6mNhWZs3w8uJ5xi4uKF4xTNPCh70SkEec8h8JXJwQVOBL18yu_sZRpTs5h-AW-xh/s320/IMG_4143.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Adding dry malt extract</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
As the water heated I added dry malt extract. Beer is made from malted grains, primarily malted barley. The grains are allowed to germinate, and the germinated grains are dried in a kiln. The malted grains can then be used to make beer. <br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgT3zbIKEzfLOYrq9HePsorKEhuIaVOVj2JzjVw__rvEKluXE5OlmyYun7q3Rvx6ufz5zXredlLw1LUMbocO2lMmB_uwz_j34IA0ZSsl8xzAJ5c5R7nEo9TLxq7WzgIjPPi1Ra_CRPj3HsO/s1600/IMG_4144.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgT3zbIKEzfLOYrq9HePsorKEhuIaVOVj2JzjVw__rvEKluXE5OlmyYun7q3Rvx6ufz5zXredlLw1LUMbocO2lMmB_uwz_j34IA0ZSsl8xzAJ5c5R7nEo9TLxq7WzgIjPPi1Ra_CRPj3HsO/s320/IMG_4144.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Stirring</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The malting process breaks down the grains into sugars. the principal sugars are fructose, glucose, sucrose and maltose. Sucrose is a disaccharide made from fructose and glucose. Maltose is a disaccharide made from two units of glucose. It is the principal sugar in malts. Malt extracts are extracts of malt that concentrate the malt sugars. These extracts can be dry or liquid.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5jNxpu6oD1nBDAerhJNMPe09yX4wVrJ8P4VXIkm3dMPpwqV8e4GiuczlpHLF5Q2mqEO8y04JOP18xXA3D7JIuuP2wXUi23fkP4KK3HWblCmSpL6FV7DuZxKDIWwVvoyBgcnwh6ebAgyl_/s1600/IMG_4145.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5jNxpu6oD1nBDAerhJNMPe09yX4wVrJ8P4VXIkm3dMPpwqV8e4GiuczlpHLF5Q2mqEO8y04JOP18xXA3D7JIuuP2wXUi23fkP4KK3HWblCmSpL6FV7DuZxKDIWwVvoyBgcnwh6ebAgyl_/s320/IMG_4145.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Adding liquid malt extract</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
When I was in Australia, I particularly enjoyed Cooper's dark beer. My brewing store had Cooper's light extract and Cooper's wheat extract. As it is not my intention to brew wheat beer, I decided to get some of the Cooper's light extract. The Munton's amber dry malt will still give the beer some darkness.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoa2PxPCq1S9tswj5suLNonqFB32srH1mADLtA2GKn7MYUc5NXLbUV0ciGiRhi8ZnqJDgvpsFY83YEOJ8SGh-MNGiHKVAeIJltsv5NEVurQq1SVP1icAin31FbsUgy8epcqFJYqxEaA4Rs/s1600/IMG_4146.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoa2PxPCq1S9tswj5suLNonqFB32srH1mADLtA2GKn7MYUc5NXLbUV0ciGiRhi8ZnqJDgvpsFY83YEOJ8SGh-MNGiHKVAeIJltsv5NEVurQq1SVP1icAin31FbsUgy8epcqFJYqxEaA4Rs/s320/IMG_4146.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Gypsum</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Gypsum is a naturally occurring mineral, calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO<span style="font-size: xx-small;">4</span> <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: -webkit-center;">· </span>2H<span style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span>O). It's debateable whether it is really needed when brewing beer. It adds some calcium hardness to the water that can help the yeast, and in addition sulfate ions can bring out the flavor of the hops.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgR9angeLFdvMIKL_8BoHM2qFKZ4ddpFghYiwGv3HhO4zCZc0JnyvO79rBAOkI8uKLWGpeCmelqqBF2v0SggAQ1ymkWXWLLlnWLnn3JVThTt6WfYM4rWM8X8yPxIdfVayoFCFPUxA4ZAvV4/s1600/IMG_4147.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgR9angeLFdvMIKL_8BoHM2qFKZ4ddpFghYiwGv3HhO4zCZc0JnyvO79rBAOkI8uKLWGpeCmelqqBF2v0SggAQ1ymkWXWLLlnWLnn3JVThTt6WfYM4rWM8X8yPxIdfVayoFCFPUxA4ZAvV4/s320/IMG_4147.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Adding gypsum</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Salt is also debatable.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnx1NpqSo3f_ECKNJQvidkeCuPwN7-kIb36C8YrPiMx8yhfNr101XrNAghkg8OVZU7cKXvhu3VkNmYw4uxG51kns12HqnI6CyOFrAmOrQvNyT1KqJqq_UrHbBydUc1ylS-Iz-cLfD_w_NX/s1600/IMG_4148.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnx1NpqSo3f_ECKNJQvidkeCuPwN7-kIb36C8YrPiMx8yhfNr101XrNAghkg8OVZU7cKXvhu3VkNmYw4uxG51kns12HqnI6CyOFrAmOrQvNyT1KqJqq_UrHbBydUc1ylS-Iz-cLfD_w_NX/s320/IMG_4148.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Salt</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Diammonium phosphate, (NH<span style="font-size: xx-small;">4</span>)<span style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span>HPO<span style="font-size: xx-small;">4</span> is a yeast nutrient that adds fixed nitrogen for the yeast.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgN3AHieqfEsmuekezLGVQbIn69Ft3RhFoM7DQe1dws9KWHyVp1kyYOul4zdLtMO3aa-lPe2L7H1ABPjH1VzUxNrrV9EGkXfnMaenXbN7j_2ZEtvrY1j27Pvao_HRTb7t5kdhyNAqNZKJfa/s1600/IMG_4149.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgN3AHieqfEsmuekezLGVQbIn69Ft3RhFoM7DQe1dws9KWHyVp1kyYOul4zdLtMO3aa-lPe2L7H1ABPjH1VzUxNrrV9EGkXfnMaenXbN7j_2ZEtvrY1j27Pvao_HRTb7t5kdhyNAqNZKJfa/s320/IMG_4149.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Diammonium phosphate</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
When the mixture came to a full boil, I added the German Northern Brewer Hop Pellets. Hops are flowers, originally added to beer as a preservative but now added mostly for flavor. There are two types of hops: bittering hops and aromatic hops. I added the bittering hops to the boil and saved the aromatic hops to "dry hop" at the end.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRbXMqpz3fdNmFq7dgDve3G7Te41ThUwaTAqkeRwJbnJ09UHNI-BTN45gUoHfEVEfpdtUfnxE0ppkgGFncWmO_QJ8nqj0qSbJeh7NyIlhrwSLkz2aXRwCFGXMPu-EhDjZqsFOsTBQqzSpS/s1600/IMG_4152.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRbXMqpz3fdNmFq7dgDve3G7Te41ThUwaTAqkeRwJbnJ09UHNI-BTN45gUoHfEVEfpdtUfnxE0ppkgGFncWmO_QJ8nqj0qSbJeh7NyIlhrwSLkz2aXRwCFGXMPu-EhDjZqsFOsTBQqzSpS/s320/IMG_4152.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Adding bittering hops</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
I allowed the wort to boil for 30 minutes. The green stuff on top is from the hops.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQZ-RkBDR9hgW0D_Sv45fRSb7nRgMMIwSK_uvUcaLCVGtYoTCRuW04s7UndhYOleqAjHDztumgF8oXk3mOaZeZPrzzIUYql5046V5Mkc1mpMi8Z7s9vIhJNcEl4bf2PK05uDgjdsNoe5Xc/s1600/IMG_4154.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQZ-RkBDR9hgW0D_Sv45fRSb7nRgMMIwSK_uvUcaLCVGtYoTCRuW04s7UndhYOleqAjHDztumgF8oXk3mOaZeZPrzzIUYql5046V5Mkc1mpMi8Z7s9vIhJNcEl4bf2PK05uDgjdsNoe5Xc/s320/IMG_4154.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Boiling the wort: the hops are floating on top</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmtwnBBkixXRnrZ7B0p9lD44UuqDU0Yjj9QvjYsBISfpa8DYlh8AIs4ejbvhIJpDyzWwxjDarcJsAq-n6NG0JGVyP72zmLf5NNJSCsJ1oNbUT-IGjVZL3oGoe-KiOuJEqzQaNqykjs97O1/s1600/cool.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="210" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmtwnBBkixXRnrZ7B0p9lD44UuqDU0Yjj9QvjYsBISfpa8DYlh8AIs4ejbvhIJpDyzWwxjDarcJsAq-n6NG0JGVyP72zmLf5NNJSCsJ1oNbUT-IGjVZL3oGoe-KiOuJEqzQaNqykjs97O1/s320/cool.bmp" width="320" /></a></div>
One thing I neglected to prepare was a plan to cool the boiled wort. Five gallons of liquid takes a long time to cool. In retrospect, I should have made/bought a lot of ice to cool it down, or perhaps designed a cooler with coolant to quickly lower the temperature of the wort.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4L1yQ9dpU1jbfGnlh-LQjAwOINvSDrbYpV-7eANW0KO2qU0fbmJG0oCb8LLRNZtnRuiUiI_0oA1oN-Xk-3pcfjFBCtA8rZPfvzBNwPPKAQ8qoltaazRY8WgObW7QUhyL12yFu7_YGoBzJ/s1600/IMG_4155.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4L1yQ9dpU1jbfGnlh-LQjAwOINvSDrbYpV-7eANW0KO2qU0fbmJG0oCb8LLRNZtnRuiUiI_0oA1oN-Xk-3pcfjFBCtA8rZPfvzBNwPPKAQ8qoltaazRY8WgObW7QUhyL12yFu7_YGoBzJ/s320/IMG_4155.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cooling the wort in an ice-water bath</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
It is crucial to let the wort cool to a temperature that will not kill the yeast.<br />
<br />
Once the wort cooled, I siphoned the wort into the carboy. A siphon operates by a combination of gravity pulling the liquid from the bottom and atmospheric pressure pushing the liquid in the top end. If you do not want to contaminate the worth with mouth suction, it is easy to prime the siphon simply by filling it with water.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGH2j8pKkjfSZN5trx2mq4M3-Vw-KcVBe_geaIPePeofjmDK9gSpqfWB9SHbj2JPRsXnEl52aBSC6Lrt90XafiRO7i6lS8FKRspuTbmmHsIAWzJG9Rt1gFovZVVoOR1k-NbknKMbF5yKsp/s1600/IMG_4132.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGH2j8pKkjfSZN5trx2mq4M3-Vw-KcVBe_geaIPePeofjmDK9gSpqfWB9SHbj2JPRsXnEl52aBSC6Lrt90XafiRO7i6lS8FKRspuTbmmHsIAWzJG9Rt1gFovZVVoOR1k-NbknKMbF5yKsp/s320/IMG_4132.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Priming the siphon</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
A clamp on the bottom of the siphon makes it a lot easier to use.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnqr_2ph0AFFW2GkH7kKkt0XkuACHte227dAd-BM-BoqYOVquosfeGncKvNyf4O_yO7DTvpBD_CbshSPK0sw7M-ri1p5nVtCInJtuP1HOdDdEvI7lPNhrWbZcswcepYQ0XhG6AcxjxsMPI/s1600/IMG_4133.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnqr_2ph0AFFW2GkH7kKkt0XkuACHte227dAd-BM-BoqYOVquosfeGncKvNyf4O_yO7DTvpBD_CbshSPK0sw7M-ri1p5nVtCInJtuP1HOdDdEvI7lPNhrWbZcswcepYQ0XhG6AcxjxsMPI/s320/IMG_4133.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Siphon clip</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Pressure from the atmosphere pushes wort into the hose.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoKTkH1YmHF-YXEBjbHp4TJLZ_d-Hsaz5P_IFHmBK8Fp3PDvvlkEU0YfLcdJY2cFjIFXYup4dguiEeuilUm-IwZjDiyHHLFTVEdhMJ9qAbjm1UOozAFrTlQokaBrrsP-S4fiZ4LeioUvXN/s1600/IMG_4157.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoKTkH1YmHF-YXEBjbHp4TJLZ_d-Hsaz5P_IFHmBK8Fp3PDvvlkEU0YfLcdJY2cFjIFXYup4dguiEeuilUm-IwZjDiyHHLFTVEdhMJ9qAbjm1UOozAFrTlQokaBrrsP-S4fiZ4LeioUvXN/s320/IMG_4157.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Siphoning the wort</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Gravity pulls wort out of the hose.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeevbWohINKL7wiJV48SJjyNYBsvyOEGs3UexqBhzc2gcQajmlN0pPgdiSxZLbjIN__QXTRGsTh8n8WjJIP0C9wF_JvQq-zszrAPIdBQIF8FzrKxosAsc9hZ4pWO7i3MkUO3O1Qo2m5qtM/s1600/IMG_4156.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeevbWohINKL7wiJV48SJjyNYBsvyOEGs3UexqBhzc2gcQajmlN0pPgdiSxZLbjIN__QXTRGsTh8n8WjJIP0C9wF_JvQq-zszrAPIdBQIF8FzrKxosAsc9hZ4pWO7i3MkUO3O1Qo2m5qtM/s320/IMG_4156.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Siphoning the wort into the carboy</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
After transferring the cooled wort into the carboy, I added the rehydrated yeast.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjN50usDDjwLz6YpnAAjiloxWm_l_Tb6eFbeY3CEK-WG8DFZEKxQIlM71h3QUElSjfXOTboC50JsSstA6SNjdvxaWGqXuKwff6t4uZzIbzFi4MDiSiniCB57wxZUaaVt24w-J_GvANGPV2p/s1600/IMG_4158.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjN50usDDjwLz6YpnAAjiloxWm_l_Tb6eFbeY3CEK-WG8DFZEKxQIlM71h3QUElSjfXOTboC50JsSstA6SNjdvxaWGqXuKwff6t4uZzIbzFi4MDiSiniCB57wxZUaaVt24w-J_GvANGPV2p/s320/IMG_4158.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Adding yeast to the carboy</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
I added the 1 oz. UK Kent Golding Hop Pellets right into the carboy, a practice called dry-hopping.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_MKdqeXe8cq5Ia4q7rO6AizzJq8bzUTgSZTP0oer1Vdya7DLyWm5rWj4PhDNtg4aneZRoeBJ8RpeuxGxh7G6TsoI5_1GKjiraqJ_WVJa-AwBOUp81iKGcVZj429PZ5MIoPvUrzDvTCKYa/s1600/IMG_4159.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_MKdqeXe8cq5Ia4q7rO6AizzJq8bzUTgSZTP0oer1Vdya7DLyWm5rWj4PhDNtg4aneZRoeBJ8RpeuxGxh7G6TsoI5_1GKjiraqJ_WVJa-AwBOUp81iKGcVZj429PZ5MIoPvUrzDvTCKYa/s320/IMG_4159.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dry hopping</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjw4PcSaGQla88trTLrZOSvHi94ljv9FJ7vmmKEllojIfBXfA8ETEHNqN1R_pTpPumiXYyZepwWW3-Xik53xQYISafdnr4CVekcZ0GmvPptgHDfVtLVRfpEKSsz3W2H7OKVCCRPYrR2NxOv/s1600/IMG_4161.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjw4PcSaGQla88trTLrZOSvHi94ljv9FJ7vmmKEllojIfBXfA8ETEHNqN1R_pTpPumiXYyZepwWW3-Xik53xQYISafdnr4CVekcZ0GmvPptgHDfVtLVRfpEKSsz3W2H7OKVCCRPYrR2NxOv/s320/IMG_4161.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The wort in the fermenter</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The wort is ready to ferment. A fermentation lock is a simple device that allows carbon dioxide to bubble out, but oxygenated air cannot enter because of a layer of water.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7F7gHfyxcZBoC-EzQ3uYsu3Xl0c8wdlg3XltBqv0_RV3rfNTJZgvlLu2HS-qVGYhougCfr22nJlsxT99gv-WBwi3lyyFgK2suo0ZSA_l-CWhDkmqh1PIoJAGxD57JTLzHAr0EWDH1D_q9/s1600/IMG_4164.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7F7gHfyxcZBoC-EzQ3uYsu3Xl0c8wdlg3XltBqv0_RV3rfNTJZgvlLu2HS-qVGYhougCfr22nJlsxT99gv-WBwi3lyyFgK2suo0ZSA_l-CWhDkmqh1PIoJAGxD57JTLzHAr0EWDH1D_q9/s320/IMG_4164.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The fermentation lock allows carbon dioxide out, but prevents oxygenated air from getting in</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
I put the carboy in the basement to ferment.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjd1sbaMbFNjkpGwGszzoLeRpfiPQStaTGYXnJ40GcdNZOACMeqy7oLQoO4XEIA6eeLUM9YGSXyD1LhJhrTTpDLmgkmKqGtH9HPPuGXYfXgYzsc-cp5p4UP1HDIiCcELmbpVlXQSOtVUPPU/s1600/IMG_4165.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjd1sbaMbFNjkpGwGszzoLeRpfiPQStaTGYXnJ40GcdNZOACMeqy7oLQoO4XEIA6eeLUM9YGSXyD1LhJhrTTpDLmgkmKqGtH9HPPuGXYfXgYzsc-cp5p4UP1HDIiCcELmbpVlXQSOtVUPPU/s320/IMG_4165.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fermentation begins</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The next evening I found a mess. Foam was pushed into the fermentation lock and overflowed. A solution to this problem is to leave more empty space in the carboy or to use a blowout tube, a piece of hose that terminates in a container of sanitizer. It performs the same function as the fermentation lock but allows more room for foam to blow out.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJEhmAp4bIcFDESd7prVUrvHiZGmMkQD6Ae-zSifAW0Y80qaV8ATFHEk6m5wvI88J6t_iF2uj1CjhEPwc9RWEY3ZhcRZIuIPlqGGHjccz62a_mB3XpMQi_x-yRjz5uqbs-iYqmXEnt9G8M/s1600/IMG_4180.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="239" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJEhmAp4bIcFDESd7prVUrvHiZGmMkQD6Ae-zSifAW0Y80qaV8ATFHEk6m5wvI88J6t_iF2uj1CjhEPwc9RWEY3ZhcRZIuIPlqGGHjccz62a_mB3XpMQi_x-yRjz5uqbs-iYqmXEnt9G8M/s320/IMG_4180.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A mess</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
I fixed the mess by siphoning out some wort, cleaning the fermentation lock, and restarting the fermentation.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEji6zob0ktiBxLRl6V6AYpXwKFdEwZijlQSo83tYE6EperTvgHWcEC8VrJPXGOUS1LH_SQnElh6ipB6jrVKzCWQGdQxhVIVFC6aOhhhFdI1aCltWrttzMe4GB68sLRAWY4o8Z1vIBS3A2RN/s1600/IMG_4181.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEji6zob0ktiBxLRl6V6AYpXwKFdEwZijlQSo83tYE6EperTvgHWcEC8VrJPXGOUS1LH_SQnElh6ipB6jrVKzCWQGdQxhVIVFC6aOhhhFdI1aCltWrttzMe4GB68sLRAWY4o8Z1vIBS3A2RN/s320/IMG_4181.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">After siphoning, fermentation continues</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
After about 2 days, the primary fermentation had ended. I let secondary fermentation continue until the next weekend, bottling after a full week of fermentation.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibJqQx7wqnshyYHka_HbVSUEODaOWoyBbabPnyN5v6e4Zfr2irsoUOariIcg2n5c-3dkXxeQvPSoWpG1vz8tYYpfA21Ycy8LhSM3qNji69wEVmDR-P0FeQV27GZNTkiOdltkkjLJLxh_dP/s1600/IMG_4182.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibJqQx7wqnshyYHka_HbVSUEODaOWoyBbabPnyN5v6e4Zfr2irsoUOariIcg2n5c-3dkXxeQvPSoWpG1vz8tYYpfA21Ycy8LhSM3qNji69wEVmDR-P0FeQV27GZNTkiOdltkkjLJLxh_dP/s320/IMG_4182.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Old beer bottles</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
I had an excess of old beer bottles that I have been collecting for awhile. Most of them are colored, but a few of them are clear. It is better to use colored bottles because light can damage the beer, but I will store the beer in the dark anyway. I recycled my extra bottles, and began the bottling process.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEip8UiGGAvwAcz0MSpb0CGwcTlmflObV123VQ8H3fnyxn5VeEylGx9YpzeKmucnDGLj2K54a8r-sgcsBeQ3uJlf2_jHZ9NVtXP_y51PSPME4C6eFB1fCh6O3dNu_egeqjxmTdD8rXe4Y6YJ/s1600/IMG_4183.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEip8UiGGAvwAcz0MSpb0CGwcTlmflObV123VQ8H3fnyxn5VeEylGx9YpzeKmucnDGLj2K54a8r-sgcsBeQ3uJlf2_jHZ9NVtXP_y51PSPME4C6eFB1fCh6O3dNu_egeqjxmTdD8rXe4Y6YJ/s320/IMG_4183.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rinsing bottles with copious amounts of water</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
I rinsed the bottles with water. Again soap leaves a bad taste. Water is sufficient to clean the bottles. I used 1-step to sanitize them.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8fgmE_HFfYKzdxpa-dXdoKH8XQjpkZiMjd6anMjU1S_XecteVK_bv3voviWo54F4o2myoVLUuE9Swzi8mUo_0xH6RawuBFJymA9GtVgoXsoEFwexTa1N9VgngfGdLN0daEfq0G1gpzy1A/s1600/IMG_4184.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8fgmE_HFfYKzdxpa-dXdoKH8XQjpkZiMjd6anMjU1S_XecteVK_bv3voviWo54F4o2myoVLUuE9Swzi8mUo_0xH6RawuBFJymA9GtVgoXsoEFwexTa1N9VgngfGdLN0daEfq0G1gpzy1A/s320/IMG_4184.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rinsing beer caps</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
I also rinsed and sanitized the caps as the bag had already been opened from my last brew, many, many, moons ago.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKM3cOT06Y4bOAk7HNAB3Z7LTBurRHm74jK2CTn0C9fXghgGFfXhQjWJkdoI3vYQpyNYBbokFxgL45VLYfVMOBXCKhznBYd0S94lgz0V4j8Z-ni6YsN6yZR9rNa_gjYFUXX4gfFqBMFsaY/s1600/IMG_4185.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKM3cOT06Y4bOAk7HNAB3Z7LTBurRHm74jK2CTn0C9fXghgGFfXhQjWJkdoI3vYQpyNYBbokFxgL45VLYfVMOBXCKhznBYd0S94lgz0V4j8Z-ni6YsN6yZR9rNa_gjYFUXX4gfFqBMFsaY/s320/IMG_4185.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sanitizing bottles</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
I rinsed all of the bottles with sanitizer.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjah7gnYhLfo3wg3SXaACaSu0BZSQgqfDNQhtjSvHrI4kFRyUt2_cpA9hbt1rXgrOfzcTcN8x89WAX3lBT-4bZBBcqhh1M3jSTXSHE6zkWugP7ZwTwrubOkag-2HUDwv8GJyPXGdYm-3GuG/s1600/IMG_4186.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjah7gnYhLfo3wg3SXaACaSu0BZSQgqfDNQhtjSvHrI4kFRyUt2_cpA9hbt1rXgrOfzcTcN8x89WAX3lBT-4bZBBcqhh1M3jSTXSHE6zkWugP7ZwTwrubOkag-2HUDwv8GJyPXGdYm-3GuG/s320/IMG_4186.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Preparing priming syrup</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
I boiled up a syrup of priming syrup with the corn sugar. Corn sugar is dextrose (D-glucose) and is easily fermented. Once the bottles are capped the carbon dioxide given off from fermentation will create pressure in the bottle. That pressure will cause the carbon dioxide to be dissolved in the beer, where it wil come to equilibrium with carbonic acid.<br />
<br />
HOCOOH <=> CO<span style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span> + H<span style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span>O<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqIxvrwTE44sLkLPm3bZwkDfLrGpIFn8Q4DUZgYCbvcpHbuiB42_ENo3DMoUSe4GFlE6c5SD-jUjNv6YRzmttSLSJ5UHg1LbyY_J0uSOaXqbbR7C8DvxyU9bf9Z0GD-m4En8XwxOWMDFWf/s1600/IMG_4187.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqIxvrwTE44sLkLPm3bZwkDfLrGpIFn8Q4DUZgYCbvcpHbuiB42_ENo3DMoUSe4GFlE6c5SD-jUjNv6YRzmttSLSJ5UHg1LbyY_J0uSOaXqbbR7C8DvxyU9bf9Z0GD-m4En8XwxOWMDFWf/s320/IMG_4187.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Siphoning into a container for bottling</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Siphoning the beer into a container with a spigot makes bottling much easier. I have two such container and was able to split the beer between them. I added the syrup, stirred, and then bottled.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQ0IAH0FzpZI778xSAM6CRUNkLhFxm6eNwcxaroBFaOTcAL2lIw0VOJSAdGyNj78KZjlZ9S1Oc9abMxDN-mgKp3gCazBHntKBkG0iPkNReS_w-YsQBwFWgBSgFvel8OwFg4z5PRXjqr4_V/s1600/IMG_4188.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQ0IAH0FzpZI778xSAM6CRUNkLhFxm6eNwcxaroBFaOTcAL2lIw0VOJSAdGyNj78KZjlZ9S1Oc9abMxDN-mgKp3gCazBHntKBkG0iPkNReS_w-YsQBwFWgBSgFvel8OwFg4z5PRXjqr4_V/s320/IMG_4188.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bottling</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Here I am bottling,<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibAfpMlAM2kxtiWb744s0R-A_XQUbwNXyU-8V1Kj7Pepa1Akya7wtUsKcik0UIoAOygANaPpSbhJZStIbS6L_OpwpdY5JcsLIu7PhAu9j0PGkXgp8_o0J1Utez-PMTfnlc3CeQUNPzhMbK/s1600/IMG_4189.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibAfpMlAM2kxtiWb744s0R-A_XQUbwNXyU-8V1Kj7Pepa1Akya7wtUsKcik0UIoAOygANaPpSbhJZStIbS6L_OpwpdY5JcsLIu7PhAu9j0PGkXgp8_o0J1Utez-PMTfnlc3CeQUNPzhMbK/s320/IMG_4189.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Capping</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
and capping.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0u3XwcZDYgYbWSeUk4nF5d415j2fKt07WJudCuMxLFplFvP7hAHJBlvbrhunSQRqGOl6i9fA22GFCE_RCh9sWAlT8zQWZ8dEYD8A6j2qEO1zL0myV2C9zZ1VPAIrbWzdei5X3DLFu-Lik/s1600/IMG_4190.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0u3XwcZDYgYbWSeUk4nF5d415j2fKt07WJudCuMxLFplFvP7hAHJBlvbrhunSQRqGOl6i9fA22GFCE_RCh9sWAlT8zQWZ8dEYD8A6j2qEO1zL0myV2C9zZ1VPAIrbWzdei5X3DLFu-Lik/s320/IMG_4190.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The first twelve pack</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
12 packs are convenient. A 12 pack is 144 oz. or 16 oz. more than a gallon.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgP5Yi5dmdnhlW_WlNPCh3zAZd8LbzFIOI90mHyQgp21rhux98UIgl2ocO97bhHUXTILvTS9v1_OW32HMjYqmnQ3IKwipNngSuvjohI5FhXATfci_lG_EEKYJKL-20jz1DyOzN2Nps1Htvv/s1600/IMG_4191.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgP5Yi5dmdnhlW_WlNPCh3zAZd8LbzFIOI90mHyQgp21rhux98UIgl2ocO97bhHUXTILvTS9v1_OW32HMjYqmnQ3IKwipNngSuvjohI5FhXATfci_lG_EEKYJKL-20jz1DyOzN2Nps1Htvv/s320/IMG_4191.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">One of the few clear bottles I used</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Mostly, I used dark bottles, but clear bottles are nice for seeing the brew.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_zJ8y4uJg9y_v1vss9zVUjftNeyELZsVeryCRjdhqVDfJkToNVkjaCP7SXgz0rcXyFourxujfSv-wgDKGXJcxaEmzjktMb9w5EB6DpNqk3HTARqlQ-bba-yXmoOWJh7eZXCGGd0ipdVLl/s1600/IMG_4192.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_zJ8y4uJg9y_v1vss9zVUjftNeyELZsVeryCRjdhqVDfJkToNVkjaCP7SXgz0rcXyFourxujfSv-wgDKGXJcxaEmzjktMb9w5EB6DpNqk3HTARqlQ-bba-yXmoOWJh7eZXCGGd0ipdVLl/s320/IMG_4192.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ready to ferment again</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
I should have tracked the cost better than I did. I spent $55 at the brewing store, most of it on ingredients, but some of on revamping equipment.. Amazon list 5 gallons of water for $15; so let's guestimate the cost of ingredients to be $70, $14 a gallon, or $1.31 per 12 oz.<br />
<br />
I actually ended up with 45 bottle of approximately 12 oz. 5 gallons would be 53 1/3 bottles. The difference arises from a combination of several factors: 1) I lost some volume by siphoning some off to avoid overflow. 2) I gained some volume by adding the priming syrup. 3) I lost some volume with the dregs. 4) I did not precisely measure 12 oz. into each bottle. For 45 bottles the price works out to be $70/45 = $1.56 per bottle.<br />
<br />
<br />
Of course, I am not including the initial cost of all the equipment, but that can be amortized over all the beer that I ever brew. If we assume that my purchase was typical for sustaining my equipment, the estimate holds.<br />
<br />
<br />
A week later, I decided to sample the brew.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDfA5NXnhKaddXeUa24oB09hcRNykrLUA4p72WY4ggZJk_uY0fSf7u7tmJCVghnesIJS-qcwDJ605vvbSubsvGhtHK6HFF6GVIDghfcP-62UonmKbrKtou0bvOXhpyluaw2K4LuqxmshXP/s1600/IMG_4198.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDfA5NXnhKaddXeUa24oB09hcRNykrLUA4p72WY4ggZJk_uY0fSf7u7tmJCVghnesIJS-qcwDJ605vvbSubsvGhtHK6HFF6GVIDghfcP-62UonmKbrKtou0bvOXhpyluaw2K4LuqxmshXP/s320/IMG_4198.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ready to sample</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
The beer was carbonated, extremely carbonated.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9mcEFONfQRHSGTHjo2ttQJtF3FtIPCqv5l83r8cfalcNRy4dnAf3YaWWsvgvQWm1l5DVXZM38xQATlpXnhK020ItYLBOzROuqzsejPpt50NiaxLx69LMAEPuDOCKnntcr0A-8ESniq_NM/s1600/IMG_4199.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9mcEFONfQRHSGTHjo2ttQJtF3FtIPCqv5l83r8cfalcNRy4dnAf3YaWWsvgvQWm1l5DVXZM38xQATlpXnhK020ItYLBOzROuqzsejPpt50NiaxLx69LMAEPuDOCKnntcr0A-8ESniq_NM/s320/IMG_4199.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Yes, it's carbonated</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Over carbonation of beer is a very common error. It results primarily from two sources: 1) not waiting long enough for fermentation before bottling, and 2) not calculating the amount of priming sugar carefully.<br />
<br />
In this case, I chose to bottle early, did not measure the density of the beer, and did not carefully calculate the amount of priming sugar. I can improve upon that in the next batch. In the meantime, it's time to taste.<br />
<br />
After refrigeration, it is a little better. Gases, including carbon dioxide, are more soluble in cold water than hot water; so it makes sense that refrigeration helps.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5mXbi4X-2nclWeMOC-8S7KJzB83iUX2hZgn8MkQ2LBIrsSrKFye6IXMVEHtq4YGkEbXnmRd1s7o2KBZYk5MfPSS4IgpEajwaQ38rBrQ-ekr6R_N1RsJWAQdPXBg8HZ4Dywg4c90szsPNL/s1600/IMG_4200.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5mXbi4X-2nclWeMOC-8S7KJzB83iUX2hZgn8MkQ2LBIrsSrKFye6IXMVEHtq4YGkEbXnmRd1s7o2KBZYk5MfPSS4IgpEajwaQ38rBrQ-ekr6R_N1RsJWAQdPXBg8HZ4Dywg4c90szsPNL/s320/IMG_4200.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Letting the beer settle</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1rdliEF1I-DnfGPfNifKBM0dOajD7-xthubVHVcF1gh27gcCwGCqnyuzIjR5ZothI7QjZwJYrCDNIVFOWVK6jmK1QjdprSxW0ipAtx7wL4yvnC16G5SFzgieBObYMUrBZxw0Dcx2prI3f/s1600/IMG_4201.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1rdliEF1I-DnfGPfNifKBM0dOajD7-xthubVHVcF1gh27gcCwGCqnyuzIjR5ZothI7QjZwJYrCDNIVFOWVK6jmK1QjdprSxW0ipAtx7wL4yvnC16G5SFzgieBObYMUrBZxw0Dcx2prI3f/s320/IMG_4201.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The first pours</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The beer came out light and refreshing, neither strongly malty, nor strongly hoppie. My wife describes it as a light summer drinking beer.<br />
<br />
I'm looking forward to the next batch. Perhaps next time, I'll try the <a href="http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2012/09/01/ale-chief-white-house-beer-recipe">White House Recipe</a>.<br />
<br />
<b>Sources</b><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>Burch, Byron, <i>Brewing Quality Beers: The Home Brewer's Essential Guidebook</i>, Joby Books, Fulton, CA 1986</li>
<li>Palmer, John, <i>How to Brew</i>, <a href="http://www.howtobrew.com/">http://www.howtobrew.com/</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://www.solvaychemicals.com/EN/products/perox/persalts/Sodium%20Percarbonates.aspx">Solvay Chemicals: Sodium Percarbonate</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote">Wikipedia: Eukaryote</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/biology/celres.html">Respiration explained at GSU</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://maltproducts.com/products.malt.html">Malt products</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malt">Wikipedia: Malt</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-maltose.htm">Wise Geek: Maltose</a> </li>
<li>White, Christopher, <i>Yeast Supplements Make Fermentation Better</i>, <a href="http://www.silveradohomebrew.com/pdfs/Yeast_nutrition_article.pdf">http://www.silveradohomebrew.com/pdfs/Yeast_nutrition_article.pdf</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://www.northernbrewer.com/connect/2012/04/over-carbonated-beer/">Northern Brewer: Over carbonated beer</a>
</li>
<li><a href="http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2012/09/01/ale-chief-white-house-beer-recipe">Ale to the Chief</a>
</li>
</ul>
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<br />
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<br />
<br />
<b>The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics</b><br />
<br />
The zeroth law states:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.</blockquote>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>For those who have studied mathematics, this law may seem obvious. Perhaps, it should not seem so obvious when one considers all the ways that macroscopic bodies can store energy. At some point I may write a post devoted to this law. Note that this law is essential to defining such a thing as temperature. Two bodies at the same temperature are in thermal equilibrium with each other.<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if they have reached the final temperature that they will reach if allowed to exchange heat with one another. At such a point, no net heat is exchanged. In many ways, the zeroth law depends on an understanding of the other laws. One could use the mnemonic, "let's keep score" for the zeroth law, but that phrase is usually used for the third law.<br />
<br />
<b>The First Law of Thermodynamics</b><br />
<b><br /></b><br />
I have written <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/04/first-law-of-thermodynamics.html">a post that goes into more depth</a> on the first law of thermodynamics. The first law states:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
Heat is not a conserved quantity, and work is not a conserved quantity, but the sum of heat and work is a conserved quantity.</blockquote>
The sum of heat and work is called the internal energy. Conservation of internal energy is a special case of the more general principle of conservation of energy. Conservation of energy can be derived from Noether's Theorem, which is perhaps one of the most profound theorems of physics.<br />
<br />
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<br />
The internal energy is a state function. Its value does not depend on the path taken. Another example of a state function that is closely related to the internal energy is a quantity called <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/05/enthalpy.html">enthalpy</a>. A mnemonic for remembering the first law is "you cannot win." You cannot get more energy out of a system than you put in.<br />
<br />
<b>The Second Law of Thermodynamics</b><br />
<br />
I have written <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/09/nonsense-and-second-law-of.html">a series of posts on the second law of thermodynamics</a>. It is my contention that this law is one of the most misunderstood and abused law in the sciences. There are <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/09/what-second-law-does-say.html">several different ways</a> to state the second law; here I'll stick to one:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
There can be no process with the sole result of absorbing heat and completely converting it to work.</blockquote>
A mnemonic for remembering this law is "you cannot break even."<br />
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<br />
The second law is intimately connected to a state function called <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/definition-of-entropy.html">entropy</a>. Entropy is often <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/entropy-is-not-measure-of-disorder.html">falsely stated to be a measure of disorder</a>. Whereas the <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/definition-of-entropy.html">entropy is a mathematical relationship</a> between the heat transferred <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/reversible-processes.html">reversibly</a>, and the thermodynamic temperature, it can also be described from a <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/11/entropy-and-statistical-thermodynamics.html">statistical-mechanical viewpoint </a>as a quantity related to the number of ways to arrange a system with a given energy range.<br />
<br />
<b>The Third Law of Thermodynamics</b><br />
<br />
I have written a <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2012/01/third-law-of-thermodynamics.html">post on the third law of thermodynamics</a>. It states:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
It is impossible to reach absolute zero in a finite number of steps.</blockquote>
A mnemonic for this law is "you cannot leave the game." Alternatively, a mnemonic is "let's keep score." This one arises because the third law is the basis for the thermodynamic temperature scale. It is possible, however, to define a temperature scale based upon the zeroth law. The third law is greedy: it gets two mnemonics, whereas the zeroth law gets zero. In the spirit of fair play, I assign one of the third law's mnemonics to the zeroth law.<br />
<br />
<b>Mnemonics</b><br />
<ul>
<li>0th Law: "Let's keep score."</li>
<li>1st Law: "You cannot win."</li>
<li>2nd Law: "You cannot break even."</li>
<li>3rd Law: "You cannot leave the game."</li>
</ul>
<b style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px;">Sources</b><br />
<br />
<ul style="background-color: white; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 2.5em; padding-right: 2.5em; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Atkins, P. W. <i>Physical Chemistry</i>, W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, 3rd edition, 1986</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">McQuarrie, Donal d A., <i>Statistical Thermodynamics</i>, University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA, 1973 </li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Bromberg, J. Philip, <i>Physical Chemistry</i>, Allan and Bacon, Inc., Boston, 2nd Edition, 1984</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Feynman, Richard P., Leighton Robert B., Sands, Matthew, <i>The Feynman Lectures on Physics</i>, Addison-Wesley, Menlo park, CA, 1965</li>
</ul>
<br />
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<a name='more'></a>Card is not a scientist, and why should he be? He is a writer of fiction. It is fiction: he is free to create the world as he sees fit. We the readers should suspend our disbelief. Yet, there is one aspect to the story that made it hard for me to suspend my disbelief.<br />
<br />
In the book, Card discusses a device called the Ansible that allows instantaneous, faster than light communication. We all know that such a notion as communicating faster than the speed of light violates relativity, but that does not particularly bother me. It is not the only story to violate relativity; so why should such a thing be bothersome?<br />
<br />
At several points in the book, Card invokes relativity, specifically the idea of time dilation. It is through time dilation that characters are able to live fewer years in the same time that other characters live more years. Such an idea, though perhaps impracticable is consistent with relativity.<br />
<br />
If we admit, the idea of time dilation, however, the concept of simultaneity suffers consequences. Two events that take place simultaneously at different locations, are only simultaneous for a given frame of reference. For other frames of reference, one event occurs before the other event.<br />
<br />
An instantaneous message is one that is received simultaneously with its transmission. There is in relativity, however, no privileged frame of reference. Suppose a message is sent from point A to point B instantaneously in a given frame of reference. In other frames of reference, the transmission and reception will not be simultaneous, i.e., the message will not be <i>instantaneous</i>.<br />
<br />
Even more problematic. There will be frames of reference, in which the message is received before it is sent. Such an occurrence constitutes causality violation. Such a causality violation would enable one side or the other in the war to go back and change the outcome after the war was over. That would be a weapon more formidable than Dr. Device (which already required me to suspend my disbelief). <br />
<br />
Card's story is a great story, and we should endeavor to suspend our disbelief. The fact that I had trouble doing so is not very interesting, but I thought that the reason I had this trouble might help shed some light on why faster-than-light travel is forbidden in relativity without having to introduce a lot of math.<br />
<br />
I am of course aware of recent,<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2011/nov/18/neutrinos-still-faster-than-light"> hard-to-explain results</a> regarding the speed of neutrinos, but that is something that makes that story so interesting. If the finding is correct, what we understand about relativity must be fundamentally flawed in some way. I am skeptical of the idea that the neutrinos were actually faster than light. I suspect that we may be seeing issues related to defining passage in the correct frame of reference with respect to GPS signals used to synchronize the clocks, or some other similar issue. Of course, I could be wrong about that.<br />
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<br />
<a name='more'></a><b>Considerations regarding the Third Law</b><br />
<br />
Perfect crystalline solids have zero entropy at absolute zero. Note that materials that are not perfect crystals do not necessarily have zero entropy at absolute zero. <br />
<br />
The Third Law provides a zero for temperature that is really a zero. The Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales have a zero, but that zero is arbitrarily assigned. In a thermodynamic temperature scale that zero is absolute zero, the coldest temperature possible, or rather a lower bound on the coldest temperature possible.<br />
<br />
The Kelvin scale is the International System (SI) standard thermodynamic temperature scale. The unit of the Kelvin scale is the kelvin, not a "degree Kelvin." It is represented by "K."<br />
<br />
0 K = -273.15 <b style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;">°</b>C<br />
<br />
The equality is exact, as the Celsius scale is now defined in terms of the Kelvin scale. The Rankine scale is a less common thermodynamic temperature scale. See my post <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/03/converting-units-of-temperature.html">Converting Units of Temperature</a> for more discussion.<br />
<br />
<b>Sources</b><br />
<ul>
<li>Atkins, P. W. <i>Physical Chemistry</i>, W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, 3rd edition, 1986</li>
<li>McQuarrie, Donal d A., <i>Statistical Thermodynamics</i>, University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA, 1973 </li>
<li>Bromberg, J. Philip, <i>Physical Chemistry</i>, Allan and Bacon, Inc., Boston, 2nd Edition, 1984</li>
<li>Feynman, Richard P., Leighton Robert B., Sands, Matthew, <i>The Feynman Lectures on Physics</i>, Addison-Wesley, Menlo park, CA, 1965</li>
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I realize the pitfalls. I am especially sensitive to the potential for inappropriate ads. If you are a regular reader and have a strong opinion about advertisements on blogs, please let me know. I am going to experiment with it. If you see ads that seem inappropriate, please let me know.<div class="blogger-post-footer"><script type="text/javascript">
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Times, serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 25px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 50px;">From the earliest days of their movement, Holocaust deniers have largely centred their arguments on the Auschwitz death camp. Surveying the literature which makes up so-called Holocaust Revisionism</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 25px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 50px;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">, </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Times, serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 25px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 50px;"> the obsession with Auschwitz is undoubtedly one of its defining features. Since the early 1990s, with the advent of the modern world-wide web, Holocaust deniers have taken to the internet to try and argue their case. Until recently, the ensuing online debates between advocates of Holocaust denial and their critics have likewise focused on Auschwitz.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Times, serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 25px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 50px;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Times, serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 25px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 50px;">My friends at the <a href="http://holocaustcontroversies.blogspot.com/">Holocaust Controversies Blog</a> have written an article that focuses on the Operation Reinhard camps, Treblinka, Belzec, and Sobibor, and the attempts to deny the reality of the murder at those camps by Holocaust deniers, Carlo Mattogno, </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Times, serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 25px; text-align: justify;">Jürgen Graf, and Thomas Kues. They dedicated this work to the memory of Harry W. Mazal OBE.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Times, serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 25px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 50px;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; text-align: justify; text-indent: 50px;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: 17px; line-height: 25px;">The work is entitled, <a href="http://holocaustcontroversies.blogspot.com/2011/12/belzec-sobibor-treblinka-holocaust.html">Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka, Holocaust Denial and Operation Reinhard:</a> A Critique of the Falsehoods of, Mattogno, Graf, and Kues. </span></span></span><br />
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<br />
In most of the discussion of nonsense in this series, the nonsense stems from a poor understanding of physics. This post introduces some nonsense that must be taken seriously. Perhaps, this nonsense, also stems ultimately from a poor understanding of physics. The people with the poor understanding this time, however, are some of the most brilliant minds in physics.<script type="text/javascript">
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<b>The School-Book Story</b><br />
<br />
This discussion starts with the school-book story of the heat death of the universe. By calling it the "school-book" story I do not mean to pooh-pooh it too much. In fact, it is most likely the correct story. Much of this post, however, will focus on caveats and complications to the story as it is usually told.<br />
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<br />
In thermodynamics, the universe is defined as the system and its surroundings. We have seen that the second law requires that for any change the total entropy of the system and the surroundings must increase or stay the same. <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/10/times-arrow.html">As time goes by</a>, therefore, the entropy of the universe increases.<br />
<br />
<a name='more'></a>The consequence is that the universe will eventually head toward its maximum entropy, and there is no going back. The universe will become a very boring place. All the stored energy that could be used to do useful work will be dispersed as heat, and the universe will become a very cold, well-mixed, dispersed, undifferentiated place. The universe will be at thermodynamic equilibrium. There will not be hot places and cold places.<br />
<br />
<b>Criticism of the School-Book Story</b><br />
<br />
As stated above, the school-book story is a good story. In fact, it is probably right, but is the school book story definitely true? To make such an assertion, it is necessary to examine some of the holes in the story. It is also necessary to enter the world of speculative science. First I turn to the obvious hole.<br />
<br />
By defining the universe as the system plus the surroundings, I played a neat trick. I essentially defined the universe as being a closed system in the thermodynamic sense (we have to be careful here because cosmologists are talking about something else when they refer to a closed universe).<br />
<br />
What if the universe in not a closed system?<br />
<br />
When examining a small system it is not hard to see the logic of the idea that the change in energy of the system is equal and opposite to the change in energy of the surroundings. If energy is conserved, such a conclusion must be true, but what about the edges of space and time? What about extreme conditions that might exist somewhere in the universe. Do we really know that the universe is closed?<br />
<br />
If the universe were not closed, one of two things must be the case. 1) There must be someplace outside the universe from which energy and/or matter can be transferred to or from the universe, or 2) energy is not really conserved. Let us examine each of these possibilities.<br />
<br />
<b>Is the Universe All There Is?</b><br />
<br />
In a semantic sense, it is easy to say yes. The word "uni" means one, meaning there is only one universe composed of everything that is. It is important to understand, however, that this answer is based on a definition. <br />
<br />
If there are places outside what we commonly call the universe, we need a new word for what we call the universe. Unfortunately, semantics aside, the common way to discuss this issue is to brush aside the etymology of the word "universe," and allow for the possibility that our universe is not all that there is.<br />
<br />
If there are truly places outside our universe that can transfer energy to our universe, then the universe is not a closed thermodynamic system, and we cannot assert that the heat death will take place. Although, see the section below on multiple universes.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, consider whether everything put together, the universe combined with everything outside the universe is a closed system? If so, then there would be an inevitable heat death of this super-universe that truly includes all the stuff. What happens if the collection of all the stuff is actually infinite? What if there are regions that actually obey different physical laws?<br />
<br />
<b>Conservation of Energy and Noether's Theorem</b><br />
<br />
One of the most profound theorems in physics is Noether's Theorem. Noether's Theorem is a way of deriving conservation laws from fundamental symmetries.<br />
<br />
For example, the conservation of momentum can be related to the symmetry of space. It does not matter where we perform an experiment: we can translate the axes, and the laws of physics still apply. This symmetry can be shown to lead to the conservation of momentum.<br />
<br />
In three dimensional space the laws of physics apply no matter which way the axes are oriented; in other words we can rotate the experiment in space without altering the results. This fact implies that angular momentum is a conserved quantity. (I'm proud to be a student of the man who literally wrote <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Angular-Momentum-Understanding-Spatial-Chemistry/dp/0471858927/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1326063062&sr=8-1">the book</a> on angular momentum!).<br />
<br />
Conservation of energy is a result of the symmetry of time (note that we are not talking about backward-forward symmetry as discussed in the previous post entitled <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/10/times-arrow.html">Time's Arrow</a>.). To quote Feynman<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
In quantum mechanics it turns out that the conservation of energy is very closely related to another important property in the world, <i>things do not depend on the absolute time</i>. We can set up an experiment at a given moment and try it out, and then do the same experiment at a later moment, and it will behave in exactly the same way. Whether this is strictly true or not, we do not know. If we assume that it <i>is</i> true, and add the principles of quantum mechanics, then we can deduce the principle of the conservation of energy. It is a rather subtle and interesting thing, and it is not easy to explain. (Feynman, I-4-7).</blockquote>
So the assumption that energy is conserved depends on the assumption that absolute time does not matter. If energy is not conserved, then the cosmos is not strictly a closed system, and the second law does not require the increase of entropy.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
We live in a time in which time seems to maintain such symmetry; thus we experience conservation of energy. Is it possible that at the very beginning of the universe, or at the very end that time may behave differently? Such a notion is probably complete nonsense. </div>
<br />
There is no reason to posit that time behaves any differently. There are no observable events that are explained by such a notion. Perhaps, one day such an observation may be made, however.<br />
<br />
If energy is conserved, and we consider the whole cosmos of however many "universes," or other entities there may be, then the school-book story of the heat death of the universe seems to hold up. Still, there are some added subtleties that need exploring.<br />
<br />
Some of the ideas that I will examine in this post are a little different from normal science because they involve potential models of the cosmos that make predictions that are almost by definition not observable by us. If a model makes a prediction that we cannot observe, it is more speculation than science. Still, it is necessary to consider such ideas, if we want to assert that we know the fate of the universe.<br />
<br />
<b>Many Worlds</b><br />
<br />
The many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics (QM) <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/manyworlds/pdf/dissertation.pdf">was proposed</a> to explain the finding of QM with regard to the collapse of a wavefunction. In Everett's words:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
Alternative 5: To assume the universal validity of the quantum description... The general validity of pure wave mechanics, without any statistical assertions, is assumed for all physical systems, including observers and measuring apparata. Observation processes are to be described completely by the state function of the composite system which includes the observer and his object-system, and which at all times obeys the wave equation...</blockquote>
The idea is that instead of probability determining to which alternative a quantum system must collapse, all the alternatives are in fact real. <br />
<br />
To properly understand this idea requires an understanding of quantum statistics, in which a system can be in a superposition of two (or more) states before a measurement determines the state. In classical mechanics, we can flip a coin and not know the result, but there <i>is</i> a result. In QM, the result is fundamentally undetermined before the measurement. The wavefunction is 50% heads and 50% tails.<br />
<br />
This idea is so bothersome that the idea that both results actually occur but in different worlds has been proposed.<br />
<br />
I should state up front that I am not happy with this theory because it does not make any predictions that would have a different result if the theory is true or if it is not. It does not appear to be a falsifiable theory.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, there are people a lot smarter than I am, who take this notion seriously. So, this is a piece of nonsense that we need to admit as possibly true.<br />
<br />
To examine the consequences of the many world hypothesis on the heat death of the universe, let us take a shortcut and pretend that we can model QM by a coin toss. There are some subtle differences between coins and particles governed by quantum mechanics. Such particles come in two flavors: 1) fermions, particles that obey Fermi-Dirac statistics, and 2)bosons, particles that obey Bose-Enistein statistics. <br />
<br />
If we have two pennies, we can distinguish them from one another. The same is not the case for fermions or bosons. In fact, the wavefunction that describes them must not be able to distinguish between them. <br />
<br />
If this idea seems like an insignificant difference, it is worth pointing out that the very existence of covalent bonding in molecules owes to this fact. The universe would look very different if electrons did not obey Fermi-Dirac statistics.<br />
<br />
Having said all that, I am now going to ignore it, and treat the collapse of a wavefunction just like a coin toss; except that in the many-worlds interpretations both results of the coin toss take place in different actually existing worlds.<br />
<br />
If we flip a coin a large number of times, most of the worlds will look very similar. Consider my post on <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/11/fluctuations.html">fluctuations</a> to better understand the statistics involved.<br />
<br />
Consider the fact that in one of the worlds, heads comes up every time. In this world, entropy would not increase. <br />
<br />
It is important to realize, two facts, however. The probability that the world in which only heads comes up is the world in which we live is vanishingly small. Consider also, that if we consider the cosmos to consist of all of those worlds put together, that the tendency toward maximum entropy will be observed.<br />
<br />
The many-worlds scenario does not contradict the idea of the heat-death of the universe, but it certainly complicates the issue.<br />
<br />
<b>Multiple Universes</b><br />
<br />
Serious minds have also proposed the idea of multiple universes, perhaps infinitely many universes that exist throughout all time and constantly pop into existence. Perhaps, not all of these universes follow the same physical laws that our universe follows. Consider, however that a subset of them do, or perhaps they all do.<br />
<br />
We cannot assert much about a universe that obeys different physical laws; so let us constrain our imagination to consider universes that have similar laws.<br />
<br />
What if there are infinitely many universes very similar to our own? What if the number of universes is so large that it dwarfs the number of ways to arrange all of the particles in the universe?<br />
<br />
Is it possible that in some of those universes entropy decreases with time?<br />
<br />
Even if that is the case we must again consider two facts: 1) the probability that we live in such a universe is so improbable that it is essentially impossible. 2) The collection of all of the universes taken together would still increase their entropy.<br />
<br />
Again, this scenario does not exactly contradict the story of the heat death of the universe, but it certainly complicates it.<br />
<br />
<b>Gravity and Entropy</b><br />
<br />
To sum up this post, the school-book story of the heat death of the universe is most likely a good story, but there are certain seemingly nonsensical, but possible arrangements of the cosmos that make the story a bit simplistic. There is much that I have not discussed. We live in an expanding universe, but what if we did not? What about black holes? <br />
<br />
The next post entitled <i>Gravity and Entropy </i>addresses some of these questions.<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>Sources</b><br />
<ul>
<li>Atkins, P. W. <i>Physical Chemistry</i>, W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, 3rd edition, 1986</li>
<li>McQuarrie, Donal d A., <i>Statistical Thermodynamics</i>, University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA, 1973 </li>
<li>Bromberg, J. Philip, <i>Physical Chemistry</i>, Allan and Bacon, Inc., Boston, 2nd Edition, 1984</li>
<li>Feynman, Richard P., Leighton Robert B., Sands, Matthew, <i>The Feynman Lectures on Physics</i>, Addison-Wesley, Menlo park, CA, 1965</li>
<li><a href="http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/noether.html">Noether's Theorem in a Nutshell</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1089686321959926513" name="1" style="background-color: white;">E. Noether, </a><a href="http://www.physics.ucla.edu/~cwp/articles/noether.trans/german/emmy235.html" style="background-color: white;">"<i>Invariante Varlationsprobleme", </i>Nachr. d. König. Gesellsch. d. Wiss. zu Göttingen, Math-phys. Klasse (1918), 235-257; </a><span style="background-color: white;">English translation </span><a href="http://www.physics.ucla.edu/~cwp/articles/noether.trans/english/mort186.html" style="background-color: white;">M. A. Travel, Transport Theory and Statistical Physics 1(3) 1971,183-207.</a>
</li>
<li>Byers, Nina, <a href="http://www.physics.ucla.edu/~cwp/articles/noether.asg/noether.html">E. Noether's Discovery of the Deep Connection Between Symmetries and Conservation Laws,</a> presented at The Heritage of Emmy Noether in Algebra, Geometry, and Physics, Bar Ilan University, Tel Aviv, Israel, December 2-3, 1996.</li>
<li>Zare, Richard N., <i><a href="http://www.amazon.com/Angular-Momentum-Understanding-Spatial-Chemistry/dp/0471858927/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1326063062&sr=8-1">Angular Momentum: Understanding Spatial Aspects in Physics and Chemistry</a></i>, Wiley-Interscience, 1st edition, 1988.</li>
<li>Pauling, Linus, and Wilson, E. Bright, Jr.,<i> Introduction to Quantum Mechanics: With Applications to Chemistry</i>, Dover, New York, 1935, 1963</li>
<li>Cohen-Tannoudji, Claude, Diu, Bernard, and Franck, Laloe,<i>Quantum Mechanics, </i>John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1977.</li>
<li>Everett, Hugh, III, <i><a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/manyworlds/pdf/dissertation.pdf">The Theory of the Universal Wavefunction</a></i></li>
<li><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1089686321959926513" name="Eve57" style="background-color: white; line-height: 22px;">Everett, H.</a><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22px;">, (1957) </span><em style="background-color: white; line-height: 22px;">‘Relative State</em><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22px;"> Formulation of quantum mechanics’, </span><em style="background-color: white; line-height: 22px;">Review of Modern Physics</em><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22px;"> </span><strong style="background-color: white; line-height: 22px;">29</strong><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22px;">, pp. 454-462; see also ‘The Theory of the Universal Wave Function’, in B. De Witt and N. Graham (eds.), </span><em style="background-color: white; line-height: 22px;">The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics</em><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22px;">, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973.</span>
</li>
<li><a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qm-manyworlds/">The Many Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiverse#Multiverse_hypotheses_in_physics">Wikipedia: Multiverse</a></li>
<li>Tegmake, Max, <i><a href="http://space.mit.edu/home/tegmark/multiverse.pdf">Parallel Universes</a></i>, Science and Ultimate Reality: From Quantum to Cosmos, honoring John Wheeler's 90th birthday,J.D. Barrow, P.C.W. Davies, & C.L. Harper eds., Cambridge University Press (2003)</li>
</ul>
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<b>Contents</b></div>
</div>
</div>
<ol>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/09/nonsense-and-second-law-of.html">Introduction</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/09/what-second-law-does-not-say.html">What the Second Law Does Not Say</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/09/what-second-law-does-say.html">What the Second Law Does Say</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/entropy-is-not-measure-of-disorder.html">Entropy is Not a Measure of Disorder</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/reversible-processes.html">Reversible Processes</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/carnot-cycle.html">The Carnot Cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/definition-of-entropy.html">The Definition of Entropy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/perpetual-motion.html">Perpetual Motion</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/hydrogen-economy.html">The Hydrogen Economy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/heat-can-be-transferred-from-cold-body.html">Heat Can Be Transferred From a Cold Body to a Hot Body: The Air Conditioner</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/second-law-and-swamp-coolers.html">The Second Law and Swamp Coolers</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/11/entropy-and-statistical-thermodynamics.html">Entropy and Statistical Thermodynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/11/fluctuations.html">Fluctuations</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/01/partition-functions.html">Partition Functions</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/03/entropy-and-information-theory.html">Entropy and Information Theory</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/03/second-law-and-creationism.html">The Second Law and Creationism</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/04/entropy-as-religious-spiritual-or-self.html">Entropy as Religious, Spiritual, or Self-Help Metaphor</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/05/free-energy.html">Free Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/06/spontaneous-change-and-equilibrium.html">Spontaneous Change and Equilibrium</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/07/second-law-radiative-transfer-and.html">The Second Law, Radiative Transfer, and Global Warming</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/10/second-law-microscopic-reversibility.html">The Second Law, Microscopic Reversibility, and Small System</a>s</li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/10/times-arrow.html">The Arrow of Time</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/12/heat-death-of-universe.html">The Heat Death of the Universe</a></li>
<li>Gravity and Entropy</li>
<li>The Second Law and Nietzsche's Eternal Recurrence</li>
<li>Conclusion</li>
</ol>
</div>
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<br />
Why does time move forward instead of backward? In the spatial dimensions, one can move left or right, up or down, backward, or forward.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZJskPBXBY4ipSLF-r5sDdVzbPFghg33Kze-JnvMwIZKDQpt1eRG5GZN4cXQcgIj9m57OOBuD6fSrIjryLKl6F-6VU1mLgxnlpCvKUNDZet-VyCsBkSZLS062j-Ox0XBPpyRbUY3aqEWuQ/s1600/Time.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="210" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZJskPBXBY4ipSLF-r5sDdVzbPFghg33Kze-JnvMwIZKDQpt1eRG5GZN4cXQcgIj9m57OOBuD6fSrIjryLKl6F-6VU1mLgxnlpCvKUNDZet-VyCsBkSZLS062j-Ox0XBPpyRbUY3aqEWuQ/s320/Time.bmp" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
Time, on the other hand, has a preferred direction. Why is that so? The underlying physics does not seem to have a preferred direction, but time does.<br />
<br />
<a name='more'></a>I am not going to answer this question in this post. Rather, the fact that entropy has a preferred direction in time provides an excuse to think about this issue. The <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/10/second-law-microscopic-reversibility.html">previous post</a> helps to explain why entropy increases with time, but it includes an underlying assumption that time moves forward.<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1089686321959926513" name="more"></a><b>Microscopic Physics and Time</b><br />
<br />
The previous post, <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/10/second-law-microscopic-reversibility.html">The Second Law, Microscopic Reversibility, and Small Systems</a> looked at the fact that the underlying microscopic physics is not dependent on the direction that time flows, but that such microscopic interactions combine to produce a flow of increasing entropy with time because of the statistics involved.<br />
<br />
In fact, this description was a bit of an oversimplification because it ignored electrical charge and parity.<br />
<br />
<b>CPT Symmetry</b><br />
<br />
In the previous post, I discussed the idea that the basic physical laws of the universe were symmetrical with respect to time. In fact, this notion is an oversimplification. The microscopic laws of the universe are not symmetric with time, but under the standard model, they are symmetric under a deeper symmetry called CPT symmetry.<br />
<br />
CPT-Symmetry is the invariance with respect to charge, parity, and time simultaneously. <br />
<br />
Charge: Particles can have positive charge, negative charge, or no charge. For example an electron has negative charge, whereas a positron has positive charge. Charge is a conserved quantity (provable from gauge invariance).<br />
<br />
Parity: Parity, in three three dimension is simply the inversion of all three Cartesian coordinates (x, y, and z) to their opposites (-x, -y, and -x).<br />
<br />
Time: Trying to define time could be the subject of a book, several books, or an entire library of books. The purpose of this post is to wonder about entropy and time.<br />
<br />
Consider a particle moving forward in time. Now consider reversing its charge, reversing its parity, and propagating it backward in time. Under CPT symmetry, these two situations are indistinguishable.<br />
<br />
A violation of CP-symmetry on the other hand, implies a violation of T-symmetry and <i>vice verse</i>.<br />
<br />
The universe is <i>not </i>invariant under CP symmetry; in fact, the standard model predicts very small deviations from such symmetry. The standard model in invariant under CPT symmetry, but allows violations of CP symmetry. Such CP asymmetries have been observed for interactions involving the weak force. This asymmetry implies a violation of T-symmetry as well. So in rare cases, time is not actually symmetric for certain interactions. <br />
<br />
It is not clear that such small asymmetries can help with understanding why time moves forward instead of backward, but it is a necessary detour to make our understanding a bit more sophisticated. Even if such interactions were more common than they are, they can still be understood as a consequence of the fact that time moves forward. They are not sufficient to explain why time moves forward.<br />
<br />
The universe is also <i>not known</i> to be invariant under CPT symmetry. String and quantum gravity theories allow the possibility of CPT violation. There are some very recent experiments looking for CPT-violation as well.<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>Time</b><br />
<br />
John Wheeler famously said that "time is what stops everything from happening at once." In fact, it is necessary to think a little deeper about what time is. It turns out that our intuitive sense of simultaneity is not something that we can trust. It turns out that that in relativity simultaneity depends on one's frame of reference. Two events that happen simultaneously but in different places in one frame of reference do not happen at the same time in a different frame of reference.<br />
<br />
The definitions of time therefore needs to be operational. Time is what we measure with a clock. Of course we want to use a very good clock, but aside from that it is not particularly important what the mechanism of the clock is.<br />
<br />
For the purposes of standardization the second has been defined. Time is one of the seven fundamental quantities in International System (SI) units. The unit of time is the second, and it is defined as the time it takes for a specific number of periods (9,192,631,770) of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of cesium 133 in its ground state. It's not important to understand all of that; what is important is to understand that we need to be able to measure time to define it. Because of relativity, we need to be careful how we measure it.<br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>Entropy and Time</b><br />
<br />
Aside from the very infrequently observed violations of CPT symmetry, entropy appears to be the only physical quantity that is dependent upon the direction in which time flows.<br />
<br />
It is tempting to want to draw some grand conclusions from such facts. Is it possible that entropy itself is responsible for the fact that time moves forward? Or, is it more reasonable to think that time just does move forward and increasing entropy is a natural consequence?<br />
<br />
As scientists, we need to be careful about jumping to conclusions about questions to which we do not know the answer. If we propose an answer, is there a consequence of that proposal that leads to a result that we can actually measure?<br />
<br />
One area of research that is of current interest is the relationship between the inflation of the universe, entropy, and time. To understand some of these issues it is necessary to understand the proposed heat death of the universe. These topics are part of the next post.<br />
<br />
The next post in this series is entitled, <i>the Second Law, the Universe, and Cosmology.</i><br />
<br />
<b>Sources</b><br />
<ul>
<li>Atkins, P. W. <i>Physical Chemistry</i>, W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, 3rd edition, 1986</li>
<li>McQuarrie, Donal d A., <i>Statistical Thermodynamics</i>, University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA, 1973 </li>
<li>Bromberg, J. Philip, <i>Physical Chemistry</i>, Allan and Bacon, Inc., Boston, 2nd Edition, 1984</li>
<li>Child, M.S., <i>Molecular Collision Theory</i>, Dover, Mineola, NY, 1974, 1984 Reprint.</li>
<li>Tolman, R.C., The Principles of Statistical Mechanics, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1938</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPT_symmetry">Wikipedia: CPT Symmetr</a>y</li>
<li><a href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/particles/cpt.html">CPT Invariance</a>
</li>
<li><a href="http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/theory/model.html">SLAC: The Standard Model</a></li>
<li><a href="http://prd.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v55/i11/p6760_1">CPT Violation and the Standard Model</a>
</li>
<li>Feynman, Richard P., Leighton Robert B., Sands, Matthew, <i>The Feynman Lectures on Physics</i>, Addison-Wesley, Menlo park, CA, 1965</li>
<li>Wu, C.S., Ambler, E., Hayward, R. W., Hoppes, D.D., Hudson, R. P., <i>Experimental Test of Parity Conservation in Beta Decay</i>, Physical Review 105 (4) 1413-1415, 1957</li>
<li><a href="http://physics.princeton.edu/romalis/CPT/">Princeton: CPT Violation Experiment (CPT-I and CPT-II)</a>
</li>
<li>Kornack, Thomas Whitmore, <a href="http://physics.princeton.edu/romalis/papers/Kornack%20Thesis%20-%20A%20Test%20of%20CPT%20and%20Lorentz%20Symmetry%20Using%20a%20K-3He%20Co-magnetometer.pdf">A test of CPT and Lorentz Symmetry Using a K-3He Co-magnetometer." Dissertation, Princeton University (2005)</a>
</li>
<li><a href="http://developeronline.blogspot.com/2008/04/time-is-what-keeps-things-happening-all.html">http://developeronline.blogspot.com/2008/04/time-is-what-keeps-things-happening-all.html</a>
</li>
<li><a href="http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/current.html">NIST: SI Units</a>
</li>
</ul>
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<b>Contents</b></div>
</div>
</div>
<ol>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/09/nonsense-and-second-law-of.html">Introduction</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/09/what-second-law-does-not-say.html">What the Second Law Does Not Say</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/09/what-second-law-does-say.html">What the Second Law Does Say</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/entropy-is-not-measure-of-disorder.html">Entropy is Not a Measure of Disorder</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/reversible-processes.html">Reversible Processes</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/carnot-cycle.html">The Carnot Cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/definition-of-entropy.html">The Definition of Entropy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/perpetual-motion.html">Perpetual Motion</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/hydrogen-economy.html">The Hydrogen Economy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/heat-can-be-transferred-from-cold-body.html">Heat Can Be Transferred From a Cold Body to a Hot Body: The Air Conditioner</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/second-law-and-swamp-coolers.html">The Second Law and Swamp Coolers</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/11/entropy-and-statistical-thermodynamics.html">Entropy and Statistical Thermodynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/11/fluctuations.html">Fluctuations</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/01/partition-functions.html">Partition Functions</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/03/entropy-and-information-theory.html">Entropy and Information Theory</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/03/second-law-and-creationism.html">The Second Law and Creationism</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/04/entropy-as-religious-spiritual-or-self.html">Entropy as Religious, Spiritual, or Self-Help Metaphor</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/05/free-energy.html">Free Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/06/spontaneous-change-and-equilibrium.html">Spontaneous Change and Equilibrium</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/07/second-law-radiative-transfer-and.html">The Second Law, Radiative Transfer, and Global Warming</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/10/second-law-microscopic-reversibility.html">The Second Law, Microscopic Reversibility, and Small System</a>s</li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/10/times-arrow.html">The Arrow of Time</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/12/heat-death-of-universe.html">The Heat Death of the Universe</a></li>
<li>Gravity and Entropy</li>
<li>The Second Law and Nietzsche's Eternal Recurrence</li>
<li>Conclusion</li>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<ol>
</ol>
</div>
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<br />
On a small scale, individual physical events are reversible; yet on a macroscopic scale, it is not so. I used to find that confusing. I'd like to try to cut through some of the confusion. In so doing, the underlying mechanism of the second law may become clearer.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQccnNOBamne6P2oYdps_8zeS2M4L3CDX8aa-cJ_dIRVFDqe0jGfzKriaVjX1Ou4dKhNcg8WJJQeYqF-sabx6PEVT1HqVwYOe2CW5hqLbQ8TjNqjcJg5kzsI5XVH6PoLPn2_kru0nkWMjO/s1600/monopoly.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQccnNOBamne6P2oYdps_8zeS2M4L3CDX8aa-cJ_dIRVFDqe0jGfzKriaVjX1Ou4dKhNcg8WJJQeYqF-sabx6PEVT1HqVwYOe2CW5hqLbQ8TjNqjcJg5kzsI5XVH6PoLPn2_kru0nkWMjO/s320/monopoly.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
Figure Source (<a href="http://www.hasbro.com/monopoly/en_US/shop/details.cfm?guid=8EE05CCF-6D40-1014-8BF0-9EFBF894F9D4&product_id=9067&src=endeca">Monopoly by Hasbro</a>).<br />
<a name='more'></a><br />
<b>Microscopic Reversibility</b><br />
<br />
The principle of microscopic reversibility is simple. It states that at a microscopic level a reverse reaction takes place by the same mechanism as the forward reaction, only it is reversed.<br />
<br />
It is perhaps not so simple to understand without an example. Consider a billiard table, one ball comes from the left and hits another and imparts all its momentum to that ball. The first ball takes the place of the second ball, and the second ball continues to roll. <br />
<br />
If we assume a friction-less, drag-less ideal billiard table, we can play the film backwards. The second ball comes from the right, imparts its momentum to the first ball and takes its place. The first ball keeps moving.<br />
<br />
Energy is conserved. All of the momentum can be transferred forward or backward. Of course with a macroscopic billiard table, our idealization matters. In real life, friction occurs and we can tell the difference between the forward process and the reverse process even if we play the film backwards.<br />
<br />
On a microscopic level, however, processes are, in general, reversible. <br />
<br />
Why does taking a process that is reversible microscopically and scaling it up to the macroscopic scale make it suddenly "care" about the forward and backward direction? <br />
<br />
If you understand the answer to that question, you understand the basis of the second law of thermodynamics itself. <br />
<br />
<b>A Modified Monopoly Game</b><br />
<br />
To understand the<b> </b>this question better, I am going to modify the rules to the game of Monopoly. Ordinarily, in Monopoly, one has to roll doubles to get out of jail. Rolling two dice gives 36 possible combinations, only six of which are doubles. So the probability of rolling doubles on any turn is 1/6.<br />
<br />
In ordinary Monopoly, the path by which one ends up in jail is different than the way one gets out of jail. I am going to change the rules to make it symmetrical.<br />
<br />
To enter jail, one lands on the "Go to Jail," square. Then one goes to jail, if and only if one rolls doubles. To leave jail, one rolls doubles, and then takes a turn starting from the "Go to Jail" square.<br />
<br />
To make it completely symmetrical, one can move around the board either clockwise or counter-clockwise. if one enters jail clockwise, one must leave counter-clockwise and vice-versa.<br />
<br />
Community Chest cards and Chance cards that send a player to jail are to be taken out of the deck.<br />
<br />
There are 40 squares on the Monopoly board. The probability of landing on a given square, of course, depends on what square a player starts on, and in this modified game, the direction the player is headed. I am going to make a simplifying assumption that we have no information about what square a player was on previously. <br />
<br />
For a small number of players (and let N = the number of players), this assumption seems silly, but as N gets large the probabilities converge.<br />
<br />
So the chances of landing on any one square in a turn, by assumption, are 1/40.<br />
<br />
Note that the path into jail is the reverse of the path out of jail:<br />
<br />
Into jail: 1) Land on "Go to Jail." 2) Roll doubles.<br />
<br />
Out of jail: 1) Roll doubles. 2) Move from "Go to Jail."<br />
<br />
Let's make one more modification: all players start the game together in jail instead of "Go." There is only one possible arrangement of the players on the board with all of them in jail. It can be considered the state of zero entropy.<br />
<br />
Consider a 1-player game. Eventually, the player will roll doubles and get out of jail. It is certainly possible that the player will end up back in jail. So, one could consider the system reversible.<br />
<br />
Consider N=2. The state where both players are in jail has only one possible arrangement. The state with only one player in jail has 80 possible arrangements (if we don't know which player is in jail). There are 1600 possible states with both players out of jail ("Just Visiting" is a square like any other).<br />
<br />
Eventually, both players get out of jail. It is certainly likely that eventually one or the other player will end up in jail. It is not too improbable that from time-to-time both players may wind up in jail at the same time. In fact, if the game goes on long enough, as Monopoly games seem to do, it will probably happen that both players are in jail at the same time again.<br />
<br />
Note that as N increases, the number of states with increasing players outside of jail, also increase dramatically. Try calculating for N=3, the number of states with all players in jail, the number with one of the three players out of jail, the number with 2 players out of jail, and the number with 3 players out of jail.<br />
<br />
Now imagine that N = 6 x 10<sup>23</sup>. Suddenly the game seems different.<br />
<br />
The games starts with all players in jail. On the first turn, 1/6 of the players will get out of jail. The fluctuations from that prediction will be so small as to be negligible. See my post on <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/11/fluctuations.html">fluctuations</a> to understand why in more detail.<br />
<br />
As the game goes on, the players will distribute themselves in a more statistically likely distribution. There will always be players in jail, and there will always be players on every square. The most likely configuration will eventually prevail, and the probability of going to a less likely configuration will be so minuscule as to be negligible.<br />
<br />
In other words, the macroscopic "reaction" of players leaving jail is irreversible, even though it is reversible on a microscopic level. This fact is really the basis of the second law of thermodynamics.<br />
<br />
<b>Small Systems</b><br />
<br />
The astute reader may be asking about small systems. What if N=2, both players have been freed from jail, and spontaneously end up back in jail. Did they not violate the law of increasing entropy?<br />
<br />
The more important point to understand is that such a movement of pieces does not violate the statistical basis of increasing entropy. The probability of decreasing entropy in this small system is large enough that it can happen on occasion. <br />
<br />
In real microscopic physical systems, it is possible for the system to spontaneously move from a higher density of states to a lower density of states, as long as such a move is not too statistically improbable.<br />
<br />
Thermodynamics is really the study of macroscopic systems. The second law works because macroscopic systems involve such large numbers.<br />
<br />
<b>Time</b><br />
<br />
So, on a microscopic scale, a reaction can be reversible. We can run the film backwards on our friction-less billiard table and not be sure whether time is moving forward or backward. When we scale things up to the macroscopic, on the other hand, it is obvious which direction time goes. The broken glass never leaves the floor to become a fully formed glass on top of the table. Entropy seems to have a preferred direction forward in time.<br />
<br />
The next post in this series is entitled the <i><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/10/times-arrow.html">Arrow of Time</a></i>.<br />
<b><br />
</b><br />
<b>Sources</b><br />
<ul>
<li>Atkins, P. W. <i>Physical Chemistry</i>, W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, 3rd edition, 1986</li>
<li>McQuarrie, Donal d A., <i>Statistical Thermodynamics</i>, University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA, 1973 </li>
<li>Bromberg, J. Philip, <i>Physical Chemistry</i>, Allan and Bacon, Inc., Boston, 2nd Edition, 1984</li>
<li>Child, M.S., <i>Molecular Collision Theory</i>, Dover, Mineola, NY, 1974, 1984 Reprint.</li>
<li>Tolman, R.C., The Principles of Statistical Mechanics, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1938</li>
<li><a href="http://www.hasbro.com/monopoly/en_US/shop/details.cfm?guid=8EE05CCF-6D40-1014-8BF0-9EFBF894F9D4&product_id=9067&src=endeca">Monopoly by Hasbro</a></li>
</ul>
<div>
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<b>Contents</b></div>
</div>
</div>
<ol>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/09/nonsense-and-second-law-of.html">Introduction</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/09/what-second-law-does-not-say.html">What the Second Law Does Not Say</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/09/what-second-law-does-say.html">What the Second Law Does Say</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/entropy-is-not-measure-of-disorder.html">Entropy is Not a Measure of Disorder</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/reversible-processes.html">Reversible Processes</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/carnot-cycle.html">The Carnot Cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/definition-of-entropy.html">The Definition of Entropy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/perpetual-motion.html">Perpetual Motion</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/hydrogen-economy.html">The Hydrogen Economy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/heat-can-be-transferred-from-cold-body.html">Heat Can Be Transferred From a Cold Body to a Hot Body: The Air Conditioner</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/second-law-and-swamp-coolers.html">The Second Law and Swamp Coolers</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/11/entropy-and-statistical-thermodynamics.html">Entropy and Statistical Thermodynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/11/fluctuations.html">Fluctuations</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/01/partition-functions.html">Partition Functions</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/03/entropy-and-information-theory.html">Entropy and Information Theory</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/03/second-law-and-creationism.html">The Second Law and Creationism</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/04/entropy-as-religious-spiritual-or-self.html">Entropy as Religious, Spiritual, or Self-Help Metaphor</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/05/free-energy.html">Free Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/06/spontaneous-change-and-equilibrium.html">Spontaneous Change and Equilibrium</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/07/second-law-radiative-transfer-and.html">The Second Law, Radiative Transfer, and Global Warming</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/10/second-law-microscopic-reversibility.html">The Second Law, Microscopic Reversibility, and Small System</a>s</li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/10/times-arrow.html">The Arrow of Time</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/12/heat-death-of-universe.html">The Heat Death of the Universe</a></li>
<li>Gravity and Entropy</li>
<li>The Second Law and Nietzsche's Eternal Recurrence</li>
<li>Conclusion</li>
</ol>
<br />
<ol>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<ol><span style="font-style: normal;">
</span></ol>
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<br />
Now, of course this poll is not a scientific one, and one should use caution in interpreting the results of such a poll, but nevertheless I suspect it is indicative of profound ignorance of the US Constitution.<script type="text/javascript">
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Before I reveal the results, let me state the poll one more time to give the reader an opportunity to see which answer he or she would have marked as correct.<br />
<br />
The poll asks the reader to finish the statement, "the Constitution states:"<br />
<br />
The following options were given as choices:<br />
<ul>
<li>Men are "endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights"</li>
<li>In God We Trust</li>
<li>There shall be "separation between Church and State"</li>
<li>"no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States"</li>
<li>One Nation Under God </li>
</ul>
<br />
<a name='more'></a>The results of the poll are shown in the following bar graph:<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxLaIUKwOSemWx__cQx6QS8sSGS6pMQUmZxHt1CpqEGNnv16PMxwuiOGyP3DBLNynAphIys8hfz4ml8aeWBk9cqiLtvCTdOErawZB4g2VzCd65swcE6we4R_2oa03JeGRf_9B2wGuHSn55/s1600/poll-religion.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="205" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxLaIUKwOSemWx__cQx6QS8sSGS6pMQUmZxHt1CpqEGNnv16PMxwuiOGyP3DBLNynAphIys8hfz4ml8aeWBk9cqiLtvCTdOErawZB4g2VzCd65swcE6we4R_2oa03JeGRf_9B2wGuHSn55/s400/poll-religion.bmp" width="400" /></a></div>
Only 39%, a plurality, but not a majority got the correct answer, "no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States." <br />
<br />
Article VI of the Constitution states:<br />
<blockquote>
The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; <b>but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. </b>(<a href="http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html">Source</a>)</blockquote>
This phrase is the only mention of God or religion in the body of the Constitution itself (The First Amendment is discussed below. Its text was <b>not</b> one of the choices in the quiz; note also that the date that the Constitution was adopted is stated as "the Seventeenth Day of September in the <b>Year of our Lord</b> one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven. " ). <br />
<br />
So where do these other phrases come from?<br />
<br />
<b>Endowed By Their Creator</b><br />
<br />
This phrase comes from the Declaration of Independence, which states:<br />
<blockquote>
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. (<a href="http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/declaration_transcript.html">Source</a>)</blockquote>
It is important to note that the legal meaning of the Declaration of Independence as to its standing in law is somewhat ambiguous:<br />
<blockquote>
Although the Declaration of Independence stands with the Constitution as a founding document of the United States of America, its position in U.S. law is much less certain than that of the Constitution. The Declaration has been recognized as the founding act of law establishing the United States as a sovereign and independent nation, and Congress has placed it at the beginning of the U.S. Code, under the heading "The Organic Laws of the United States of America." The Supreme Court, however, has generally not considered it a part of the organic law of the country. For example, although the Declaration mentions a right to rebellion, this right, particularly with regard to violent rebellion, has not been recognized by the Supreme Court and other branches of the federal government. The most notable failure to uphold this right occurred when the Union put down the rebellion by the Southern Confederacy in the Civil War. (<a href="http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Declaration+of+independence">Source</a>)</blockquote>
<b>In God We Trust</b><br />
<br />
This phrase appears on US coins. It was directed by an act of Congress in on April 22, 1864. Since that time it has occasionally been left off of coins:<br />
<blockquote>
The use of IN GOD WE TRUST has not been uninterrupted. The motto disappeared from the five-cent coin in 1883, and did not reappear until production of the Jefferson nickel began in 1938. Since 1938, all United States coins bear the inscription. Later, the motto was found missing from the new design of the double-eagle gold coin and the eagle gold coin shortly after they appeared in 1907. In response to a general demand, Congress ordered it restored, and the Act of May 18, 1908, made it mandatory on all coins upon which it had previously appeared. IN GOD WE TRUST was not mandatory on the one-cent coin and five-cent coin. It could be placed on them by the Secretary or the Mint Director with the Secretary's approval.</blockquote>
<blockquote>
The motto has been in continuous use on the one-cent coin since 1909, and on the ten-cent coin since 1916. It also has appeared on all gold coins and silver dollar coins, half-dollar coins, and quarter-dollar coins struck since July 1, 1908. (<a href="http://www.treasury.gov/about/education/Pages/in-god-we-trust.aspx">Source</a>)</blockquote>
In 1956, at the height of the cold war, the motto was adopted as an official motto of the United States. The phrase now appears on paper currency as well as on coins. <br />
<br />
<b>Separation Between Church and State</b><br />
<br />
On January 1, 1802 Thomas Jefferson wrote a letter to the Danbury Baptists in support of the First Amendment's religious clauses. The text of the final letter that he sent is as follows:<br />
<blockquote>
<blockquote>
The affectionate sentiments of esteem and approbation which you are so good as to express towards me, on behalf of the Danbury Baptist association, give me the highest satisfaction. my duties dictate a faithful and zealous pursuit of the interests of my constituents, & in proportion as they are persuaded of my fidelity to those duties, the discharge of them becomes more and more pleasing.</blockquote>
<blockquote>
Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between Man & his God, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only, & not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should "make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof," thus building a wall of separation between Church & State. Adhering to this expression of the supreme will of the nation in behalf of the rights of conscience, I shall see with sincere satisfaction the progress of those sentiments which tend to restore to man all his natural rights, convinced he has no natural right in opposition to his social duties.</blockquote>
<blockquote>
I reciprocate your kind prayers for the protection & blessing of the common father and creator of man, and tender you for yourselves & your religious association, assurances of my high respect & esteem. (<a href="http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9806/danpre.html">Source</a>)</blockquote>
</blockquote>
In an 1879 decision, Reynolds v. United States, the Supreme Court of the United States found that Jefferson's language of a wall separating Church and State was an authoritative statement on the meaning of the religious clauses of the First Amendment:<br />
<blockquote>
<blockquote>
Coming as this does from an acknowledged leader of the advocates of the measure, it may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the amendment thus secured. Congress was deprived of all legislative power over mere opinion, but was left free to reach actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order. (<a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=1104642225155375579&hl=en&as_sdt=2&as_vis=1&oi=scholarr">Source</a>)</blockquote>
</blockquote>
So although this phrase may be an authoritative interpretation of an amendment to the Constitution, it is not itself to be found within the Constitution.<br />
<br />
<b>Under God</b><br />
<br />
The Pledge of Allegiance was written by a socialist named Francis Bellamy in 1892. Originally, he wrote:<br />
<blockquote>
I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all. (<a href="http://www.ushistory.org/documents/pledge.htm">Source</a>)</blockquote>
In 1923, it was changed to read:<br />
<blockquote>
I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America and to the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all. (<a href="http://www.ushistory.org/documents/pledge.htm">Source</a>)</blockquote>
It was adopted by Congress in this form in 1942. Twelve years later, in 1954, during the cold war, at the urging of President Eisenhower, the phrase "one nation, indivisible" was divided with the phrase "under God." The issue of whether to include the phrase has been divisive one ever since.<br />
<br />
<b>The First Amendment</b><br />
<br />
The battle of the role of religion in public life centers around the First Amendment to the Constitution, which reads:<br />
<blockquote>
<b>Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof</b>; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.(<a href="http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights_transcript.html">Source</a>)</blockquote>
It is necessary to mention that the First Amendment has been incorporated into the Fourteenth Amendment and is therefore binding on the states as well as the Federal Government.<br />
<br />
The amendment prohibits the establishment of religion and also protects the free exercise of religion. These parts of the amendment are termed "the establishment clause," and the "free exercise" clause. There is an inherent tension between establishment and free exercise. <br />
<br />
A perfect example of that tension is the existence of the Army Chaplain Corps. The Corps exists to guarantee soldiers the right to free exercise of their religion. Yet the Chaplain Corps must carefully walk the line of not violating the establishment clause. A cursory look at court cases involving the Chaplain Corps make evident the difficulty of walking this line.<br />
<br />
The Chaplain Corps is perhaps a microcosm of the nation at large that must constantly struggle to find the right balance between "establishment" and "free exercise."<br />
<br />
<b>Sources</b><br />
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution.html">Constitution of the United States</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/declaration.html">The Declaration of Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Declaration+of+independence">Legal Dictionary: the Declaration of Independence</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.treasury.gov/about/education/Pages/in-god-we-trust.aspx">US Treasury: "A History of 'In God We Trust'"</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9806/danpre.html">Library of Congress: Jefferson's Letter to the Danbury Baptists</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9806/danbury.html">Library of Congress: A Wall of Separation</a></li>
<li><a href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=1104642225155375579&hl=en&as_sdt=2&as_vis=1&oi=scholarr">Reynolds v. United States, 98 US 145 - Supreme Court 1879</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.ushistory.org/documents/pledge.htm">The Pledge of Allegiance</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_of_Allegiance">Wikipedia: the Pledge of Allegiance</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights_transcript.html">The Bill of Rights</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.goarmy.com/chaplain.html">The US Army Chaplain Corps</a></li>
</ul>
<br />
<br />
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<br />
In a previous post I explained <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/07/how-to-convert-to-and-from-parts-per.html">how to convert to and from units of ppm</a>. The current post explains the units petagrams of carbon, and how to convert from ppm to petagrams of carbon.<br />
<br />
<a name='more'></a><b>Petagrams</b><br />
<br />
First it is necessary to understand units of petagrams. The SI units of mass are kilograms (kg). A kilogram is 1000 grams. One can construct other units of mass by prepending a prefix to the units grams.<br />
<br />
1 kilogram (kg) = 10<sup>3</sup> grams (g)<br />
1 megagram (Mg) = 10<sup>6</sup> g = 10<sup>3</sup> kg<br />
1 gigagram (Gg) = 10<sup>9 </sup>g = 10<sup>6 </sup>kg<br />
1 tertagram (Tg) = 10<sup>12 </sup>g = 10<sup>9 </sup>kg<br />
1 petagram (Pg) = 10<sup>15 </sup>g = 10<sup>12 </sup>kg<br />
<br />
So one petagram is equal to one quadrillion grams, or one trillion kilograms.<br />
<br />
<b>The Atmosphere</b><br />
<br />
The mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480 x 10<sup>18</sup> kg or 5.1480 x 10<sup>21 </sup>g. The molar mass of air is 28.966 g. So the atmosphere contains 5.1480 x 10<sup>21</sup><b>/</b>28.966<b> = </b>1.7773 x 10<sup>20</sup> moles of air.<br />
<br />
<b>Moles of Carbon Dioxide</b><br />
<br />
Mole fractions of carbon dioxide are expressed in ppm and <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/07/how-to-convert-to-and-from-parts-per.html">directly convertible</a> from parts-per-million by volume.<br />
<br />
So 1 ppm carbon dioxide = 1.7773 x 10<sup>20</sup> /1,000,000 = 1.7773 x 10<sup>14 </sup>moles carbon dioxide.<br />
<br />
In June of 2011, the Mauna Loa site measured 393.69 ppm of carbon dioxide, which equates to<br />
<br />
393.69 x 1.7773 x 10<sup>14 </sup><b>= </b>6.9970 x 10<sup>16</sup> moles of carbon dioxide. It is worth noting that carbon dioxide is near its high point in the cycle for 2011, its last low point was about 386 ppm or 6.86 x 10<sup>16</sup> moles.<br />
<br />
<b>Mass of Carbon Dioxide</b><br />
<br />
It is now a simple matter to convert from moles of carbon dioxide to mass of carbon dioxide. The molecular mass of carbon dioxide is<br />
<br />
12.01 + 16.00 + 16.00 = 44.01 grams/mole.<br />
<br />
So 1 ppm carbon dioxide =<br />
<br />
1.7773 x 10<sup>14 </sup>moles x 44.01 grams/mole = 7.822 x 10<sup>15 </sup>grams or 7.822 petagrams of CO<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span>.<br />
<br />
So 393.69 ppm = (393.69 x 7.822) = 3079 Pg Pg CO<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span><br />
and 386 ppm CO<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">2 </span>3019 Pg CO<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span>.<br />
<b><br /></b><br />
<b>Petagrams of Carbon</b><br />
<br />
For every mole of carbon dioxide, there is one mole of carbon. The molar mass of carbon is 12.01 g.<br />
<br />
So 1 ppm carbon dioxide =<br />
<br />
1.7773 x 10<sup>14 </sup>moles x 12.01 grams/mole = 2.134 Pg of carbon.<br />
<br />
So 393.69 ppm CO<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">2 </span><b>= </b>840.1 Pg of carbon<br />
and 386 ppm of<b> </b>CO<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">2 = </span>823.7 Pg carbon<br />
<b><br /></b><br />
<b>Sources</b><br />
<ul>
<li><a href="http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI-3299.1">Trenberth, Kevin E; Smith, Lesley, <i>The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constrained Global Analysis</i>, J. Climate 18, 864-875 (2005)</a></li>
<li>John M. Wallace and Peter V. Hobbs,<i> Atmospheric Science</i>, Second Edition, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006</li>
<li><a href="http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/mlo.html">Earth System Research Laboratory Global Monitoring Division: Recent Mauna Loa CO<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span></a>.</li>
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<br />
"An interaction with the catalog's database layer failed unexpectedly: sqlite3_step--5: database is locked."<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhi6RGgt0b7xvNe_kywhC0FDJU9SHzsdLvzZhdQRFnZmkrCK74OOey62yf72DtMuqxk_6yVLZ6My0ELeuiviIFO-GBVlYNmvlqy2ieBmTakPr_Ct5MWHo2h4bk7XlOr8wSFsrN0_vuR8Y3J/s1600/error.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="123" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhi6RGgt0b7xvNe_kywhC0FDJU9SHzsdLvzZhdQRFnZmkrCK74OOey62yf72DtMuqxk_6yVLZ6My0ELeuiviIFO-GBVlYNmvlqy2ieBmTakPr_Ct5MWHo2h4bk7XlOr8wSFsrN0_vuR8Y3J/s400/error.bmp" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
Surprisingly, the Norton online help is no use at all. This problem, however is not difficult to fix. As I have had this same issue with multiple versions of Ghost and also it seems to occur on multiple operating systems, the solution is probably not exclusive to my environment. However, I am running Vista 64 bit and Norton Ghost 14.<br />
<br />
<a name='more'></a>To solve this problem it is necessary to stop the Norton backup service. Press Control-Alt-Delete all at the same time and choose "Start Task Manager."<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh97eKVwUJZfK2Y_HEvR0ltledH9EW4XFYzXES53lLAwWhedhR9Qdh1CKJ6eVN7N7BhnwSBGFnr5WZVwQyYwPcGLfDj6Nhrb4da_LdPZInhwsP0OhBhwrkL_G46VIZhtXNXooRr1EZMfWeS/s1600/taskman.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="313" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh97eKVwUJZfK2Y_HEvR0ltledH9EW4XFYzXES53lLAwWhedhR9Qdh1CKJ6eVN7N7BhnwSBGFnr5WZVwQyYwPcGLfDj6Nhrb4da_LdPZInhwsP0OhBhwrkL_G46VIZhtXNXooRr1EZMfWeS/s400/taskman.bmp" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
Click on the "Services" tab:<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-dUlKhWS4EqexHsPU8l-IYuVGW0qCXZDanUdny0vvDwHxbH0N5ozeNiyYSh8m04ye6i5CLJZpyXtA0j7CoBcMlbpgQlKOk-TG887hYlUr7bgkNNWx1qKALgtuRE-hhl3ybmUaolh0E4_6/s1600/services.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="297" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-dUlKhWS4EqexHsPU8l-IYuVGW0qCXZDanUdny0vvDwHxbH0N5ozeNiyYSh8m04ye6i5CLJZpyXtA0j7CoBcMlbpgQlKOk-TG887hYlUr7bgkNNWx1qKALgtuRE-hhl3ybmUaolh0E4_6/s400/services.bmp" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
If you like, sort by name; you do not have to do that, but it makes it easy to see which services are running:<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgC0j3taLAgGtfT452pls_5U9jK8ePVl14H5NOqcvdCLh0-oxgXCzH_SfKP3Kd8L8qmCVc9xHonMB1Ni7hGxxturQI1oHmduQT-ZGbHsT8o2tabs3DzhF2Opfj-ekdt7qjGU4v0XbqYqXsA/s1600/sorted.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="293" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgC0j3taLAgGtfT452pls_5U9jK8ePVl14H5NOqcvdCLh0-oxgXCzH_SfKP3Kd8L8qmCVc9xHonMB1Ni7hGxxturQI1oHmduQT-ZGbHsT8o2tabs3DzhF2Opfj-ekdt7qjGU4v0XbqYqXsA/s400/sorted.bmp" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
In my case the service is called "norton Ghost," but it may also be called "BESR," Backup Exec System Recovery." It may be listed as either a Norton or a Symantec product.<br />
<br />
Select it, right click, and choose "stop service."<br />
<br />
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<br />
It may deny you access;<br />
<br />
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<br />
We'll simply have to outsmart it. Click on the services button in the lower right corner. Windows may ask you for permission; grant it, and the following window should appear:<br />
<br />
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<br />
Select the service and click "stop the service" in the upper left:<br />
<br />
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<br />
Norton may complain that it cannot connect to the "agent." Disregard the complaint. Keep the services window open; you will need it again to restart the service. Got to "Computer," or "My Computer" or whatever your operating system calls it and navigate to the C drive.<br />
<br />
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<br />
Double click on Local Disk (C:) and then double click on "Program Data." <br />
<br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red;">Double click on "Symantec."</span><br />
<br />
Double click on "FileBackup"<br />
<br />
Delete the file "catalog.dat<br />
<br />
It might also be found in C:\Documents and Settings\All Users\Application Data \ file backup<br />
<br />
You may have to hunt around in similar locations depending on your OS and Ghost version.<br />
<br />
Go back to the services window, choose Norton Ghost and select "Start the service."<br />
<br />
Run Ghost. It may take awhile to start as it has to rebuild the database. You may need to redefine your backup jobs, but you probably do not. Click on "status" and see what happens. If you have to redefine the jobs, go ahead and do it, but I did not have to do so.<br />
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Does global warming violate the second law of thermodynamics? Such a claim may seem strange. The idea that the vast majority of physical scientists would subscribe to an idea that somehow violates a fundamental law of thermodynamics on its face seems odd. Yet, such a claim is often made by people calling the science behind global warming into question.<br />
<a name='more'></a><br />
I prefer to call such people doubters rather than deniers. I have written a <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/02/opinion-dont-call-climate-doubters.html">post</a> that explains the reason for this preference. The term denier is too closely associated with <a href="http://www.holocaust-history.org/denial/">Holocaust denial</a>, and it is an unfair brand. <br />
<br />
The term skeptic is also inappropriate because doubters rarely behave like true skeptics. In fact, the <a href="http://www.skepdic.com/">skeptical view </a>is to follow the evidence<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red;">. </span><strike><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red;">, and the</span></strike> <span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red;">The</span> preponderance of the evidence supports the case for anthropogenic global warming<strike><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red;">.</span></strike><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red;">, but this fact will have to be demonstrated.</span><br />
<br />
To understand that evidence, we must bite off one piece at a time, and this essay focuses specifically on the erroneous claim that global warming somehow violates the second law of thermodynamics.<br />
<br />
<b>Radiative Transfer</b><br />
<br />
Before it is possible to address this claim it is necessary to understand the context in which it is raised. For those wishing a more in-depth understanding, I have written a primer on <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/01/primer-on-infrared-spectroscopy-and.html">infrared spectroscopy and global warming</a>. Radiative transfer involves the absorption, emission, and scattering of electromagnetic radiation.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiXUJ-COGkrsbQWy-xAfu_OH2wrYfOsrbQ4EocSo8nwqCi2Nr1aZ1J9TYe3_Ps2xoh_rwJt00zwtuaBQ7GbTpFEMk38wgtiqTrl3wNeJZg2LSsPqnGItfKD5sNXsdS2JqTNoxmY8jkG7tt/s1600/HCl+abosrption.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiXUJ-COGkrsbQWy-xAfu_OH2wrYfOsrbQ4EocSo8nwqCi2Nr1aZ1J9TYe3_Ps2xoh_rwJt00zwtuaBQ7GbTpFEMk38wgtiqTrl3wNeJZg2LSsPqnGItfKD5sNXsdS2JqTNoxmY8jkG7tt/s400/HCl+abosrption.bmp" height="181" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
These processes in the earth's atmosphere are extremely important in understanding the energy balance of the troposphere. Carbon dioxide, in particular, absorbs infrared radiation emitted from the earth.<br />
<br />
The carbon dioxide in each layer of the atmosphere also emits infrared radiation. This emission is dependent on the temperature of that layer; it is also dependent on the infrared spectrum of carbon dioxide, which is not a <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/01/infrared-radiation-black-bodies-and.html">blackbody</a> because it has <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/03/infrared-spectra-of-molecules-of.html">discrete spectral absorption and emission</a>.<br />
<br />
A comment to <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/06/radiative-transfer.html">one of the posts</a> in that series from a person that I assume to be a student in the physical sciences in that series reads as follows:<br />
<blockquote>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;">In my opinion the radiative transfer theory puts in the following inconsistencies when deals with planetary atmosphere.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"> </span></blockquote>
<blockquote>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;">1) It firstly contradicts the second law of thermodynamics assuming that thermal radiation (heat) flows spontaneously from a molecule at lower temperature to a molecule at higher temperature (feedback radiation).</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"> </span></blockquote>
<blockquote>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;">2) Moreover one estimates the atmospheric CO</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"> 15 microns irradiance adopting, with extreme easiness, the black body radiation laws (Plank, Stefan-Boltzmann, Kirchhoff) as if its thermal radiation is both always and however possible at any temperature.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"> </span></blockquote>
<blockquote>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;">We know very well that the radiation at 15 microns pertains to a precise vibrational resonant frequency of the CO2 molecule. On the other hand we also know that the CO</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"> molar heat capacity at constant volume, at atmospheric temperatures, is around 2.5*R (R is the universal gas constant) or rather that such molecules still behave in practice as rigid bodies since the collision intensity with the other molecules, due to the thermal random motion, is absolutely insufficient to start and keep up a meaningful vibrational forced oscillation and to bring it in resonance, that is the necessary condition for photon emission. But then, if there are no forced vibrational oscillations thermically rising, how can the molecules to have a thermal radiation at a vibrational frequency? Why this is possible the CO</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"> molar heat capacity at constant volume should be at least equal to 3.5*R, value that is reached around a temperature of 700-800 K.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><br /></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;">With these two substantial thermodynamic inconsistencies I think that is all wrong, all to start again.</span></blockquote>
I replied briefly and perhaps a little condescendingly to this comment as follows:<br />
<blockquote>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;">Thanks for your comment. You are a little confused about the second law of thermodynamics. Specifically, you are confused about the difference between kinetics and thermodynamics. Colder bodies do spontaneously radiate to hotter bodies, it's just that the hotter bodies radiate more and the average result is that the hotter body warms up the colder body. You ought to read up on rate equations and equilibrium.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><br /></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><br /></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;">Your argument about heat caopacity would seem to argue that CO</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"> cannot radiate, but it is easy to observe CO</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"> radiating. The answer is that at room temperature only about 1 in a million CO</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; line-height: 16px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"> molecules is in v=1, vibrational motion is quantized. The effect on the heat capacity is small.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><br /></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><br /></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #3e3e3e; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;">The inconsistencies you bring up are not substantial, but indicate that you have some more studying to do. Keep on doing it! But think for yourself!</span></blockquote>
Other than the condescending tone, there are two things I would change about my reply. The first is that I would omit the word spontaneously. It is confusing to use it in this context. Secondly, instead of referring to v=1, I should have referred to<b> </b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">ν</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"> = 1. </span>The response hits the major points, but deserves some further explanation.<br />
<br />
<b>The Second Law</b><br />
<br />
One misunderstanding of the second law of thermodynamics is that it does not allow heat to flow from a cold body to a hot body. The person who made the comment above also misunderstands the second law of thermodynamics, but in a way that takes some explanation to understand.<br />
<br />
The second law does prevent heat from flowing from a cold body to a hot body in a cyclic process with no other effect. See my posts on <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/heat-can-be-transferred-from-cold-body.html">air conditioners</a> and <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/second-law-and-swamp-coolers.html">swamp coolers</a> to understand why heat can be transferred from a cold body to a hot body.<br />
<br />
Still, that is not the mistake made in this comment.<br />
<br />
It is true that under normal (<a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/06/spontaneous-change-and-equilibrium.html">spontaneous</a>) conditions that the net transfer of heat must be from a hot body to a cold body and not the reverse.<br />
<br />
This fact does not mean that energy is not or cannot be transferred from the cold body to the hot body. It simply means that more energy must flow from the hot body to the cold body than <i>vice versa</i>.<br />
<br />
A world in which energy could not flow from a cold body to a hot body would be very strange indeed.<br />
<br />
Consider two gas samples of carbon dioxide at two different temperatures. Consider that the samples are placed so that infrared radiation emitted from one sample impinges on the other and <i>vice versa</i>.<br />
<br />
The cold sample will emit radiation that is dependent on its temperature and its infrared spectrum. It does not somehow magically "know" that there is a hotter sample of carbon dioxide near it. It does not know that it should not emit radiation in the direction of the hotter sample.<br />
<br />
Infrared photons that approach the hotter sample are of the correct frequencies to be absorbed by the hotter sample. The hotter sample does not magically know that the origin of these photons is a sample of carbon dioxide that is cooler than it is. It will absorb those photons in line with <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/01/beer-lambert-law-saturation-and-all.html">Beer's Law</a>.<br />
<br />
Now the fact is that the hotter sample of carbon dioxide radiates more photons than the cold sample. The cold sample absorbs these photons as well. The net effect is that more photons are emitted from the hot sample and absorbed by the cold sample than are emitted from the cold sample and absorbed by the hot sample. <br />
<br />
So the net heat transfer is indeed from the hotter body to the colder body. See my post on a <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/05/multi-layer-model-of-carbon-dioxide.html">multi-layer model of carbon dioxide</a> to understand this situation at a deeper level.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNFzGhKa9dOohW6vb2ELMBD_8OSnlDDdogwA4UTUATrt0wSpfRZNzbzfg80WgiFmsOArn5csK8DDq_HmRqeRt80YMMfKxr5qWP419Wk7PPugQPBjCSaesCLmIjqOT88lBzqgcOZe7shcsT/s1600/multi-ppm.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNFzGhKa9dOohW6vb2ELMBD_8OSnlDDdogwA4UTUATrt0wSpfRZNzbzfg80WgiFmsOArn5csK8DDq_HmRqeRt80YMMfKxr5qWP419Wk7PPugQPBjCSaesCLmIjqOT88lBzqgcOZe7shcsT/s400/multi-ppm.bmp" height="262" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
<b>Why does it matter?</b><br />
<br />
Consider the troposphere. In the troposphere, the temperature generally decreases with increased altitude. See my post on <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/05/structure-of-atmosphere.html">the structure of the atmosphere</a> to understand the temperature profile of the atmosphere in more depth.<br />
<br />
The plot below shows an idealization of the troposphere with a lapse rate of 6.5 K per 1000 meters.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-zsJYvIY88MCKb803fmvE6zYFJ1hXgENkTp8xPZk9Kjzf-guCoCpFVWCoBYMt1xLFBFYoqX-NJ_V1v8CM8dU53MKS4p5B_Zt2K8pqVNm4zWIwSl-wsS6wAsByC5AmvMvHvaU-JGdZsb1o/s1600/tempalt.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-zsJYvIY88MCKb803fmvE6zYFJ1hXgENkTp8xPZk9Kjzf-guCoCpFVWCoBYMt1xLFBFYoqX-NJ_V1v8CM8dU53MKS4p5B_Zt2K8pqVNm4zWIwSl-wsS6wAsByC5AmvMvHvaU-JGdZsb1o/s400/tempalt.bmp" height="262" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">
An important effect of adding carbon dioxide to the troposphere is that more of the infrared radiation that originates from the earth is absorbed in the troposphere.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">
Therefore the troposphere warms. There are feedback mechanisms involving water that increase the effect of this warming.<br />
<br /></div>
The upper troposphere is still much colder than the surface of the earth. So why should a warming troposphere have any effect on surface temperature? After all, we all "know" that heat cannot be transferred from a cold body to a hot body.<br />
<br />
As explained above, the net heat does flow from hot to cold, but energy also flows from cold to hot and that energy affects the net heat flow. <br />
<br />
Why do we use blankets to keep us warm? The trapped air, after all, is still cooler than our body temperature. In fact that trapped air keeps us warm because there is energy flow both ways. <br />
<br />
The net effect is that heat flow is proportional to the <span style="color: red;">negative</span> gradient of the temperature. In other words, your body loses more heat outside on a cold day than it does on a warm day. There is nothing magical or counter-intuitive going on here. For a deeper understanding see my post <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/06/spontaneous-change-and-equilibrium.html">Spontaneous Change and Equilibrium</a>.<br />
<br />
<b>Vibrational Excitation</b><br />
<br />
The second part of the comment may seem a bit more esoteric for the casual reader, but it does not make it any more accurate. I will try to unpack this comment a bit and explain why it is based upon an incorrect understanding.<br />
<br />
The essence of the argument is as follows. The individual makes a back-of-the-envelope calculation of the energy content of carbon dioxide as a function of temperature. At temperatures of interest, let's say 200K - 300K to keep things simple, it is clear that the energy per molecule is not enough to excite the <span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;">ν</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;">2 </span></span> (~15 micron) band of carbon dioxide.<br />
<br />
If this reasoning were correct, the vibration could never be excited at the temperatures of interest, and therefore carbon dioxide could not emit infrared radiation through the 15 micron band.<br />
<br />
It is an empirical fact that carbon dioxide at temperatures from 200-300K does emit radiation from the 15 micron band. So where did the reasoning go wrong?<br />
<br />
The error is that the individual who made this calculation does not sufficiently understand energy distributions in a collection of molecules. Not every molecule in a sample of carbon dioxide has the average energy of that sample. Some molecules have less energy than the average; some molecules have more energy.<br />
<br />
The distribution of energies is well understood and is governed by Boltzmann statistics. <br />
<br />
<b>Back-of-the-Envelope Calculation of Average Energy</b><br />
<br />
Because it is the principle that maters, not the absolute numbers, I will follow suit with a back-of-the envelope calculation without quibbling about the details.<br />
<br />
If the constant-volume heat capacity of a mole of carbon dioxide is assumed to be about 2.5 R, then the internal energy content is about 2.5 x R x T, where R is the universal gas constant and T is the absolute temperature.<br />
<br />
At 200 K, that is equal to about 4160 Joules/mole. At 300 K it is equal to about 6240 Joules/mole.<br />
<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQMHdA-PupFzucrZ7IxT8WsJyZrKuKCw09Av77plV-g59xWKRdLFwSHNNDlv7yhslR8YW6YkflQD2w-4YwM7aThcf6Gkx8Ujgzhgx-I6X9k6eMDtIh4FbajZ6Uz0Y-l_Aqr3FDLVw1Jsvf/s1600/ave-energy.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQMHdA-PupFzucrZ7IxT8WsJyZrKuKCw09Av77plV-g59xWKRdLFwSHNNDlv7yhslR8YW6YkflQD2w-4YwM7aThcf6Gkx8Ujgzhgx-I6X9k6eMDtIh4FbajZ6Uz0Y-l_Aqr3FDLVw1Jsvf/s400/ave-energy.bmp" height="285" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
In a Joule of carbon dioxide, there are Avogadro's number (6.022 x 10<sup>23</sup>) of carbon dioxide molecules. So the average energy of a molecule at 200 K is 4200 divided by Avogadro's number, or 6.69 x 10<sup>-21</sup> Joules.<br />
<br />
At 300 K that works out to 1.04 x 10<sup>-20</sup> Joules.<br />
<br />
The center of the 15-micron band is at about 670 cm<sup>-1</sup>. <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/07/how-to-convert-to-and-from-wavenumbers.html">To convert from wavenumbers</a> to microns quickly we take 10<sup>4 </sup> and divide by 670.<br />
<br />
Now let's convert to Joules.<br />
<br />
1 Joule(J) = 6.242 x 10<sup>18</sup> eV = 5.034 x 10<sup>22</sup><b> </b>cm<sup>-1</sup>.<br />
<br />
So 670 cm<sup>-1</sup> = 670/5.034 x 10<sup>22 </sup> = 1.33 x 10<sup>-20</sup> Joules.<br />
<br />
So, as stated the average molecule does not have enough energy to excite the vibration.<br />
<br />
Now consider what happens if one out of a million molecules is in the excited vibrational state. Out of a mole of molecules that would mean that 6.022 x 10<sup>17</sup> molecules have this added energy. If we sum up all of that energy it is (1.33 x 10<sup>-20</sup> Joules) x (6.022 x 10<sup>17</sup> molecules), which equals 0.00801 Joules or 8.01 mJ.<br />
<br />
Recall that a mole of carbon dioxide at 200 K has 4160 Joules and at 300 K, it has 6240 Joules.<br />
<br />
If we subtract the energy used to excite the vibrationally excited molecules from the energy available, it has a negligible effect. In other words, the effect of the heat capacity of the vibrational excitation is negligible.<br />
<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEioenqXIfHKemufNmWTb8F5K5onijQnwWKxfLPjUKwe7Zzg19Qaj-ix_peDr7wfGSaJKdpiAkyookA-BFKsGq6X3LLQ06lQPOBURe4FBPjvcnwD4wwn53SaidEF7o1zxhktlCHe77wp94fd/s1600/ave-energy2.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEioenqXIfHKemufNmWTb8F5K5onijQnwWKxfLPjUKwe7Zzg19Qaj-ix_peDr7wfGSaJKdpiAkyookA-BFKsGq6X3LLQ06lQPOBURe4FBPjvcnwD4wwn53SaidEF7o1zxhktlCHe77wp94fd/s400/ave-energy2.bmp" height="285" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
If we are worried about the heat capacity, we are free to approximate a sample of carbon dioxide as if it were made of rigid bodies, but we must not confuse an approximation with reality. Some of those molecules are vibrationally excited, a fact that can be shown by application of Boltzmann statistics.<br />
<br />
This calculation contains many simplifications and approximations, but the exact numbers are not important. The key point to understand is that there is a distribution of energies among the molecules in a sample. Bulk properties, such as the heat capacity are not very sensitive to the fact that some of the molecules have enough energy to be in excited vibrational states.<br />
<br />
Taking an average and concluding that none of the molecules have enough energy to be in a vibrationally excited state is a misunderstanding of the basic physics involved.<br />
<br />
Otherwise, carbon dioxide at temperatures between 200-300 K would not thermally emit radiation via the 15 micron band.<br />
<br />
This thermal radiation can be directly observed. If one looks at a cold sky at night, emission from water, carbon dioxide and ozone can be readily observed with passive infrared spectrometry.<br />
<br />
A few examples of such observations are listed below.<br />
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.opticsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?&id=51090">Infrared Emission Spectrum of the Atmosphere, Raymond Sloan, John H. Shaw and Dudley Williams, JOSA vol. 45, Issue 6, pp. 455-457 (1955) </a></li>
<li><a href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991JGR....9611319A">Upper Atmospheric Infrared Radiance from CO2 and NO Observed During the Spirit 1 Rocket Experiment, Alber-Golden, S.M.;Matthew, M.W.; Smith D.R., Journal of Geophysical Research, vol 96., Jul1. 1991 pp. 11,319 - 11,329</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18195921">Rocketborne Cryogenic (10 K) high-resolution interferometer spectrometer flight HIRIS: Auroral and Atmospheric IR Emission Spectra, Stair, A.T, Jr.; Pritchard J.; Coleman, I.; Bohne C.; Williamson, W.; Rogers, J.; Rawlins, W.T., Appl Opt. 1983, Apr 1; 22 (7), pp. 1056-1069</a></li>
</ul>
A brief search of the literature will reveal many other such observations. <br />
<br />
<b>The Second Law Meme</b><br />
<br />
I am not sure where the idea that global warming violates the second law of thermodynamics comes from. I have done some searching on Google and have found various repetitions of the claim a few examples are below:<br />
<ul>
<li><a href="http://climaterealists.com/index.php?id=5940">A post by Alan Siddons From Climate Realists</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.thenewamerican.com/index.php/tech-mainmenu-30/environment/2826-the-science-fiction-of-the-greenhouse-effect">An article by Rebecca Terrell at the New American</a> that cites: </li>
<li><a href="http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/arxiv/pdf/0707/0707.1161v4.pdf">A Journal article by Gerhard Gerlich and Ralf D. Tscheuschner entitled Falsification of CO2 Greenhouse Effects Within the Frame of Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://hockeyschtick.blogspot.com/2009/11/greenhouse-gas-theory-violates-2nd-law.html">A post on Hockeyschtick.blogspot.com</a></li>
</ul>
There are a lot more examples. Even the paper by Gerlich and Tscheuschner relies on the same faulty reasoning, and they ought to know better. These arguments are routinely put forth and are rarely challenged by the so-called "skeptic" community.<br />
<br />
<b>Skepticism</b><br />
<br />
Using talking points that one does not understand to dismiss science that one does not understand is not skepticism. In my post <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/01/glaciergate-and-healthy-skepticism.html">Glacier Gate and Healthy Skepticism</a>, I discuss this issue:<br />
<blockquote>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">
Healthy skepticism involves thinking for oneself and following the trail of evidence. There is a tendency in a politicized environment to try to lead the evidence rather than follow it. In leading the evidence one takes potshots at the evidence without actually trying to understand it. A true skeptic keeps an open mind, but listens to what the evidence is saying. Claiming that the Theory of Evolution is untrue because one does not wish to believe it, is not skepticism. So it is with global warming.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px;">
Neither should a true skeptic take a claim that the Himalayan glaciers will melt by 2035 at face value. A true skeptic should dig deeper and ask what such a claim is based upon. If the claim is based upon good science, one should be willing to accept it. If the IPCC researchers had dug deeper, they would have found that the prediction was premature based upon the science.</div>
</blockquote>
A true skeptic would be as interested in refuting such a bogus claim with valid physics as he or she would be interested in challenging the claims of established climate science. <br />
<br />
Additionally, one cannot be a skeptic of an argument that one does not understand. The right to call oneself a skeptic is earned, not asserted.<br />
<br />
The next post in this series is entitled <a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/10/second-law-microscopic-reversibility.html">The Second Law, Microscopic Reversibility and Small Systems</a>.<br />
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<b>Sources</b></div>
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</div>
<ul>
<li>Atkins, P. W. <i>Physical Chemistry</i>, W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, 3rd edition, 1986</li>
<li>McQuarrie, Donal d A., <i>Statistical Thermodynamics</i>, University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA, 1973 </li>
<li>Bromberg, J. Philip, <i>Physical Chemistry</i>, Allan and Bacon, Inc., Boston, 2nd Edition, 1984</li>
<li><a href="http://www.opticsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?&id=51090">Infrared Emission Spectrum of the Atmosphere, Raymond Sloan, John H. Shaw and Dudley Williams, JOSA vol. 45, Issue 6, pp. 455-457 (1955) </a></li>
<li><a href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991JGR....9611319A">Upper Atmospheric Infrared Radiance from CO2 and NO Observed During the Spirit 1 Rocket Experiment, Alber-Golden, S.M.;Matthew, M.W.; Smith D.R., Journal of Geophysical Research, vol 96., Jul1. 1991 pp. 11,319 - 11,329</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18195921">Rocketborne Cryogenic (10 K) high-resolution interferometer spectrometer flight HIRIS: Auroral and Atmospheric IR Emission Spectra, Stair, A.T, Jr.; Pritchard J.; Coleman, I.; Bohne C.; Williamson, W.; Rogers, J.; Rawlins, W.T., Appl Opt. 1983, Apr 1; 22 (7), pp. 1056-1069</a></li>
<li><b><a href="http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/">NIST WebBook</a></b></li>
<li><a href="http://climaterealists.com/index.php?id=5940">A post by Alan Siddons From Climate Realists</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.thenewamerican.com/index.php/tech-mainmenu-30/environment/2826-the-science-fiction-of-the-greenhouse-effect">An article by Rebecca Terrell at the New American</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/arxiv/pdf/0707/0707.1161v4.pdf">A Journal article by Gerhard Gerlich and Ralf D. Tscheuschner entitled Falsification of CO2 Greenhouse Effects Within the Frame of Physics</a></li>
</ul>
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<b>Contents</b></div>
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</div>
<ol>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/09/nonsense-and-second-law-of.html">Introduction</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/09/what-second-law-does-not-say.html">What the Second Law Does Not Say</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/09/what-second-law-does-say.html">What the Second Law Does Say</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/entropy-is-not-measure-of-disorder.html">Entropy is Not a Measure of Disorder</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/reversible-processes.html">Reversible Processes</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/carnot-cycle.html">The Carnot Cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/definition-of-entropy.html">The Definition of Entropy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/perpetual-motion.html">Perpetual Motion</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/hydrogen-economy.html">The Hydrogen Economy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/heat-can-be-transferred-from-cold-body.html">Heat Can Be Transferred From a Cold Body to a Hot Body: The Air Conditioner</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/10/second-law-and-swamp-coolers.html">The Second Law and Swamp Coolers</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/11/entropy-and-statistical-thermodynamics.html">Entropy and Statistical Thermodynamics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2010/11/fluctuations.html">Fluctuations</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/01/partition-functions.html">Partition Functions</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/03/entropy-and-information-theory.html">Entropy and Information Theory</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/03/second-law-and-creationism.html">The Second Law and Creationism</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/04/entropy-as-religious-spiritual-or-self.html">Entropy as Religious, Spiritual, or Self-Help Metaphor</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/05/free-energy.html">Free Energy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/06/spontaneous-change-and-equilibrium.html">Spontaneous Change and Equilibrium</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/07/second-law-radiative-transfer-and.html">The Second Law, Radiative Transfer, and Global Warming</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/10/second-law-microscopic-reversibility.html">The Second Law, Microscopic Reversibility, and Small System</a>s</li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/10/times-arrow.html">The Arrow of Time</a></li>
<li><a href="http://how-it-looks.blogspot.com/2011/12/heat-death-of-universe.html">The Heat Death of the Universe</a></li>
<li>Gravity and Entropy</li>
<li>The Second Law and Nietzsche's Eternal Recurrence</li>
<li>Conclusion</li>
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